Communism vs. Fascism

Communism vs. Fascism Communism and fascism are at the opposite ends of the totalitarian spectrum. Their major differences lie in their economic and social characteristics, but they do share many similarities in the political aspect. Soviet communism and German fascism are, in fact, very unlike each other, but they affected the people of the Soviet Union and Germany in many similar ways. You can observe how the ideas of communism and fascism differ mainly through their goals, along with other characteristics.Communism pursues international goals, which is shown in Stalin’s strive to push the Soviet Union to be a leading economic power. Fascist leaders pursue goals limited to their own nation. A communist society pushes have no social classes, which is why private ownership of land or property is not supported. Contrarily, fascism is very much class-based, as seen in Hitler’s views of race superiority. Though the goals of these two governmental systems differ very much, the methods used to achieve these goals are remarkably similar. The similarities between communism and fascism lie in their political methods.The most obvious comparison is that they are both dictatorial, one-party governments. Under each government, citizens are expected to be entirely devoted to the state, which glorifies military and war. Their rights are virtually nonexistent, and the media information they see is censored so that they only are aware of what the government wants them to know. In Germany, citizens that didn’t fit the ideal image of the dictator, Adolf Hitler, were sent to concentration or death camps, mainly because the state had the power to do so.Though the ideas and goals of communism and fascism contrast, the methods they use to achieve them are almost identical. Generally, communism and fascism are considered opposite in reference to totalitarianism. They are very different in their economic and social aspects, but they do share similarities in their political characteristics and governing methods. Soviet communism and German fascism are very contrastable, but they affected the people of the Soviet Union and Germany in many similar ways.

The Forgotten Group Member

Case Study 7: The Forgotten Group Member Developed by Franklin Ramsoomair, Wilfred Laurier University The group is in storming stage right now. Every member of the group is in tension. Unannounced meeting shows that they are forming cliques. They could have easily informed every member of the group to discuss the project. Christine, the leader of the group could have managed the team in a better way. Group in this stage need more communication, training, supervision, and controlling. But she did not provide any of it. Knowing the stages of group development was also an issue within Christine’s team. The team never went through the forming stage. They never got to know one another. Clear expectations were not set amongst the group. Frankly, Christine probably wasn’t a good pick for the team lead because of the ongoing distractions she was experiencing with her grades in school. That was more important to her, not the team’s success. Janet or Steve would have been a better choice for the team’s leader. Basically, this group never got passed the storming stage. Christine never took the time to evaluate the situation. She just preceded status quo. The group is facing many problems. The main problem is, Christine is not an effective leader for the group. She didn’t assign work to the team or we can say the team never went through the forming stage. They never got to know each other. Even Christine did not know her team very well and did not take any steps to improve it. No clear work was assigned to the team members, no meeting were set in advance. Christine failed to cater to everyone’s need within the group which was evident because necessary steps weren’t taken to ensure Mike would be able to join the team for meetings. Christine failed to pack them in. Had she paired Mike up with Janet whose more reliable and always over achieve when it comes to the group Mike would not have felt excluded from the group. She could have even paired Mike with Steve who’s more businesslike being that he ensures that things are on point and according to plan for the teams meetings. She failed to promote creativity and definitely lacked communication within the group. With the latest technology, other means of communication should have been used as a resource. She could have suggested or used video conferencing, teleconference, or simply resulted to a simple email or chat to delegate tasks for the group’s project which ties into the constant communication with the group. Communication can make or break any relationship, especially in the workplace. The failed communication was evident when members didn’t know the team was meeting. Everyone should have been informed of all upcoming meetings well in advance so they would have been prepared to be in attendance and effectively contribute to the team’s project during the meetings. This could have promoted creativity, innovation, and initiative amongst all group members which would have resulted in group motivation. Christine did more managing tasks and not leading the group. A good leader would do things somewhat differently when compared to a manager. I'd prefer a leader when picking someone to build a team for this task based on my thread earlier. I personally think that leaders have more motivational traits versus managers. I have been in both shoes. To summarize the difference between Christine’s traits versus that of an effective leader I have provided a useful table that will help summarize the differences and really drive home what it takes to be an effective leader. Upon reviewing the characteristics below of a leader versus a manager by subject matter you will get a clearer picture. This is a very useful table that I came across while researching this topic for our class discussion threads. Based on this information, managers tend to have more demotivating traits while leaders have more motivating traits. I would rather have a leader! The Forgotten Group Member Case Study 7: The Forgotten Group Member Developed by Franklin Ramsoomair, Wilfred Laurier University The group is in storming stage right now. Every member of the group is in tension. Unannounced meeting shows that they are forming cliques. They could have easily informed every member of the group to discuss the project. Christine, the leader of the group could have managed the team in a better way. Group in this stage need more communication, training, supervision, and controlling. But she did not provide any of it. Knowing the stages of group development was also an issue within Christine’s team. The team never went through the forming stage. They never got to know one another. Clear expectations were not set amongst the group. Frankly, Christine probably wasn’t a good pick for the team lead because of the ongoing distractions she was experiencing with her grades in school. That was more important to her, not the team’s success. Janet or Steve would have been a better choice for the team’s leader. Basically, this group never got passed the storming stage. Christine never took the time to evaluate the situation. She just preceded status quo. The group is facing many problems. The main problem is, Christine is not an effective leader for the group. She didn’t assign work to the team or we can say the team never went through the forming stage. They never got to know each other. Even Christine did not know her team very well and did not take any steps to improve it. No clear work was assigned to the team members, no meeting were set in advance. Christine failed to cater to everyone’s need within the group which was evident because necessary steps weren’t taken to ensure Mike would be able to join the team for meetings. Christine failed to pack them in. Had she paired Mike up with Janet whose more reliable and always over achieve when it comes to the group Mike would not have felt excluded from the group. She could have even paired Mike with Steve who’s more businesslike being that he ensures that things are on point and according to plan for the teams meetings. She failed to promote creativity and definitely lacked communication within the group. With the latest technology, other means of communication should have been used as a resource. She could have suggested or used video conferencing, teleconference, or simply resulted to a simple email or chat to delegate tasks for the group’s project which ties into the constant communication with the group. Communication can make or break any relationship, especially in the workplace. The failed communication was evident when members didn’t know the team was meeting. Everyone should have been informed of all upcoming meetings well in advance so they would have been prepared to be in attendance and effectively contribute to the team’s project during the meetings. This could have promoted creativity, innovation, and initiative amongst all group members which would have resulted in group motivation. Christine did more managing tasks and not leading the group. A good leader would do things somewhat differently when compared to a manager. I'd prefer a leader when picking someone to build a team for this task based on my thread earlier. I personally think that leaders have more motivational traits versus managers. I have been in both shoes. To summarize the difference between Christine’s traits versus that of an effective leader I have provided a useful table that will help summarize the differences and really drive home what it takes to be an effective leader. Upon reviewing the characteristics below of a leader versus a manager by subject matter you will get a clearer picture. This is a very useful table that I came across while researching this topic for our class discussion threads. Based on this information, managers tend to have more demotivating traits while leaders have more motivating traits. I would rather have a leader!

Early Childhood Special Education Roots Essay

Early childhood special education that is practiced today has a varied and sometimes hard won history. Its roots are entangled in cultural, economic, and idealistic influences; each facet tinged by the colored lens of the times and adding a little glint to modern day practices. The conglomeration of historical theories and practices, political actions and enacted laws has paved the way to modern early childhood special education practices and programming. Just like a child learns and builds on his knowledge and understanding of his environment, so too does the practice of early childhood special education. In its infancy ECSE was not labeled as such, and in fact was simply teaching. Throughout history, many educators have had differing perspectives and opinions on how best to educate children. Many of those ideas and practices have popularly endured, and some have become very small portions of our current systems, or faded into obscurity altogether. One of the earliest models on early childhood education was the Montessori model. The Montessori methods and tools are prevalent in classrooms today, from individualized and sensory programming to didactic learning materials. Other early educators realized that even very young children benefit from instruction. Jean Piaget identified stages of development from birth to adolescence that still assist educators in identifying appropriate modes of teaching. Others like Robert Owen, John Locke and Lev Semenovich Vygotsky theorized that a child’s environment had a profound influence on his/her development and education, giving a foundation for current early intervention strategies in impoverished, urban areas. Vygotsky also gifted to forward generations the theories of the Zone of Proximal Development, scaffolding and ideas about special needs students working in least restrictive environments. All the way from these LRE’s, are the ideas of institutions. The residential school model however is still useful in some ways today. Samuel Gridley Howe and Dorothea Dix implemented supportive, residential schools for children with disabilities, but when the First World War had its grips on the country, the schools deteriorated into holding cells that pervaded until throughout the depression era. Politics and societal situations have always been instigators of change for education. Post World War II, many war veterans returned home with disabilities changing the attitudes and urgency in servicing individuals with special needs, spurring a profusion of financial and program support. Moving into the mid-20th Century, civil rights opened a consciousness about not only race, but also a socioeconomic dichotomy. Project Head Start was federally funded compensatory program, with a focus on aiding the impoverished; it would later evolve into a more comprehensive program for seeking and aiding special needs children and families. Many other programs and studies aimed at supporting young children with disabilities and their families began to appear, including Early Head Start, the Carolina Abecedarian Project and the Perry Preschool Project, among others. These programs and research studies aimed at aiding and reinforcing the importance of early intervention for at risk children. Supporting and preemptively averting the struggles brought on by environmental disadvantages made the transition to special education support logical. With the social climate changing and an awareness of human rights, legislation regarding special needs populations was ripe. Perhaps the greatest catalyst to change was the enactment of PL 94-142 the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975. The foundations of this public law and the following amendments are the backbone of all special education as we know it today. This law has 6 main areas of concern. First, the right to a free and appropriate public education is bestowed. Throughout the coming decades, interpretation of FAPE comes up in many court cases, each ruling setting precedence for the future. Second, children with disabilities are given the right to learn in the least restrictive environment (LRE) a practice from centuries prior, but with legal backing, changed the model of public schools in this country. An Individualized Education Plan was written into the body of the IDEA, giving specific protocol for supporting the learning of each individual student. This item is the true workhorse of special education classrooms, bringing the student’s goals, objectives and educational plan, the educators, parents and the other support staff together in one document. The fourth premise of the IDEA is the guarantee to guardians of procedural due process, retaining the guardian’s rights regarding notices, evaluations, placements and other educational plans. Unbiased and multiple assessment criteria is the 5th area addressed in the IDEA. Lastly, part of the legislation includes the parents of special needs students, by affording them access to related services that would benefit the student. Related services was and is an area for interpretation, and again, many court cases have been tried and decided creating standards for what qualifies as a related service. Aside from these six main points, the IDEA has outlined much more. IDEA has given us a universal structure for classifying disabilities, and in a 1991 amendment, ruled that an umbrella classification for preschool aged children was acceptable and malleable state to state. This meant that children would not have to be prematurely labeled or stigmatized, when proper assessment was yet to be exacted. This law gave rise to the term â€Å"developmentally delayed†. A preschooler and his/her family could receive services under the classification of developmentally delayed. IDEA has also given individual states the leeway to define and exact methods of determining what developmentally delayed means. While culturally and regionally more specific, this leaves a large range of differences in qualifications across the country. Since its inception, individuals with special needs have reaped many benefits from the laws and boundaries set by the IDEA, but it wasn’t until October 1986 that very young special needs children and their families could be guaranteed services. While grants and incentives for states to serve the preschool population were available, participation in those programs were completely voluntary. The Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments, or PL 99-457, passed in October 1986, mandated that all special needs preschoolers between the ages of three and five be provided with a FAPE . This law was enacted with the purpose of enabling early intervention and a cost effective preventative strategy to serving special populations. Part C of this law also makes services for infants, birth to age two voluntary. Adding preschoolers to the population of compulsory service made the use of IFSP or Individualized Family Service Plans prevalent. These plans are similar to IEP’s except that they comprehensively include the family and give leeway to assigning the role of the service provider, enabling professionals who are most capable of assisting each family to act. Unlike and IEP, the IFSP must be reviewed at least every 6 months, ensuring relevancy with a quickly growing and changing child. Related services including counseling and classes are now extended to family members. By sharing the process and improvement with the preschoolers’ guardians, we are able to see much greater progress with cooperative engagement. Along with the IFSP, PL 99-457 saw the requirement of an Individualized Transition Plan, aiding young adults in making the change into adulthood. Fast forward to 1997, and PL 105-17 made some important amendments to the IDEA. Related services are expanded, developmentally delayed category can be applied up until age nine, parameters and process around discipline is set. Functional Behavior Assessments or Behavior Intervention Plans must be enacted when providing discipline to special education children. Also, assessments for qualifying for special education are expanded, and Child Find reaches into private schools to deliver services to more children. Along with these changes also came a change in funding based on census data versus enrollment data. The percentages served translated to a fixed amount of funding, averting a glut of over qualifying students. Lack of English Language proficiency is excluded as an area of qualification for services. This is important with the rising populations of English language learners. With the number of children from non-english speaking families on the rise, achievement gaps were widening. The No Child Left Behind Act in 2001 was drawn to support impoverished, special needs and English language learners. This act is directly responsible for the Amendments to IDEA that came in 2004. One of the most important changes made was that of aligning the standards of highly qualified special education teachers to the standards of the No Child Left Behind Act. Inclusion of ECE teachers is yet to be enacted, however. The field and study of Early Childhood Special Education is a deeply diverse and ever evolving practice. Past experience has dictated that social climates, politics, events and laws all contribute to the programming of ECSE. The gains have been great, with dramatic increases in the numbers of children and families found and served, but as a nation, we certainly have some more distance to travel. With current legislation and social issues ranging from secure schools to better serving working families, subsidized healthcare, immigration policies or revamping teacher evaluations, the future of Early Childhood Education is unwritten and open to influence.

Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Globalization - Essay Example In essence, globalization is designed in a way that is potentially damaging to developing nations. In fact it is structured in a manner that lifts wealth and knowledge from poor economies to economically and politically stable economies. In regards to economic and cultural growth it is evident that significant growth over a number of has been noticed. It is important to note that the contemporary situation is fundamental to the earlier events. This is accelerated by the speed, complexity and magnitude of communication networks that are involved. Due to this, the volume of trade, size of interaction and risks associated with globalization has virtually gone high giving globalization unimagined force. In fact, within the accelerated interconnection of world economies, deep seated political challenges have been experienced by poor nations pushing them to more overdependence on foreign aid from giant economies such as the United States of America. From such economies, poor nations tend r ely for capital as well as technical assistance. Further, there has been transference in control of economy from the nation or state towards multinational corporations according to Naomi Klein (Klein 56). In addition to this shift, there has been a rise and globalization of brands. This is an indication that large corporations are not only interested in developing and marketing brands among different countries but also within their producing nations. It is important to note that multinational corporations such as the Coca Cola Company and Nike Inc. among others are fabricated companies under control of a few individuals. Leading economists argue that globalization aims at diffusing philosophies, practices and expertise among cooperating states. They consider such practices as something beyond internationalization or universalization. Moreover, it is neither modernization nor westernization but a global intensification of social relationships linking detached localities in a manner t hat what takes place within is subject to control by events taking place several kilometers from that location. In this way, we are made to comprehend layout and localness in different way other than the normal understanding. It also involves postponement of dissimilar relations based on ideologies, economic state, military power and political alignment across nations in the world. It is vital to note that after the Second World War, globalization was a subject of diffusion of ideologies such as liberalism and socialism. This founded capitalism manner of production as well as distant range of military striking among a few strong states. In the early decades, reform movements were focused on fighting global injustices as opposed to the contemporary movements who focus is amassment of wealth for the benefit of a few individuals. For example, within the last few decades, a new brand of economy emerged around the globe that can be likened to a new brand of capitalism. It is characterize d by efficiency and keenness which is a function of knowledge creation and information processing. These firms and their territories are linked together in production, management and distribution networks whose key activities are global. The movement is a non-Zapatista because it seems to be fighting injustices for a few nations. Therefore,

Kotter#5,6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Kotter#5,6 - Essay Example In this step, Kotter (4-12) emphasizes to delegate the powers, authority and autonomy to direct the change efforts in order to reshape a new behavior, replacing the old behavior. On the other hand, Haddad (98-99) has focused more on feasibility, effectiveness and benefits of participatory design while implementing a strategic change. If participation is encouraged from those who are directly going to be affected by change implementation, that change program will fulfill their needs more appropriately rather than implementing such a change in which employees participation is overlooked. This bottom lime strategy clearly resembles with that of fifth step of Kotter (4-12) which puts more weight on â€Å"empowering others to act in the vision†. I agree with points raised by Kegan and Lahey (49-59) to understand the concept why people won’t change, simply because of the 180-degree difference in their stated commitments and competing commitments. However, if these behaviors are identified and appropriately confronted with the participation of employees, the implementation of strategic change will be far more convenient for the organizations. The analysis of Beer and Nohria (13-23) outlines the two mindsets of managers in dealing with the change. These mindsets are formulated as Theory E and Theory O by Beer and Nohria (13-23). Those managers who have the mindset of Theory E, investigates the Economic value of everything which they find in the organization’s culture. These managers toil hard to maximize the wealth of shareholder as their ultimate goal of success. On the contrary, Theory O believers have the standpoint of developing the capabilities of the organization. If the combined effects of both these theories are analyzed, these effects are closely related to the sixth step of Kotter (4-12) which involves short-tem wins.

Organizational Behavior Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organizational Behavior - Assignment Example The researcher states that job satisfaction or dissatisfaction can be one of the most uplifting or damning things for an organization and its management to ponder. It directly affects the morale of the workers and contributes to the success or failure of the enterprise to achieve its goals. Herzberg found that there were two sets of factors that impacted on the job satisfaction level of employees. He called the positive ones Motivation factors and the negative ones Hygiene factors. In the job as a clerk at a University, the researcher has found that a clerk often complains of the low salary and restrictive and archaic company policies. However a clerk has taken this job just to support his studies at the University. At the same time it helps him understand how the University is run. On the other hand, he has a good working relationship with his boss as well as his peers, which helps her survive and look forward to the next working day. For the researcher, he plans to take a more care er oriented job, and would like to be challenged by exciting work assignments, with a sense of achievement and opportunities for further advancement and growth into a responsible managerial position. The researcher would also like to be remunerated well for my efforts because he believes that money is a great motivator and can help one get many comforts in life. But he would also agree that in any organization, there must be enough incentives to let the employees do the work in peace and quiet and be properly appraised for it, so that they see that their effort is being recognized. 2. Take the short personality inventory related to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The MBTI is the most popular psychological assessment tool for employee development. http://www.personalitytype.com/career_quiz Tell us your profile and whether or not it reflects what you know to be true about your personality. After taking the MBTI test, I have been typeset as INTJ or Introvert, Intuitive, Thinker, Judge r. This reflects about 2 to 4 percent of the U.S population. I find this assessment to be quite a faithful and correct representation of my character or personality. I am quite shy around people and do not automatically want to hug the limelight. I prefer to let my deeds speak for themselves. I also am a quiet sort of person and have trouble starting conversations with strangers, usually of the opposite sex. I usually start conversations by getting to the point after exchanging pleasantries and would find it difficult to make small talk just to pass the time. I am known to be direct but considerate at the same time. I like to judge situations and events and would be the first to point out mistakes and errors. I do not mean to be critical but it is really a natural trait. I would have trouble praising myself and am rather appalled at the way some other people readily praise themselves and picture themselves to be the heroes or people most sought after in every situation. It is as if the world would come to a stop without their presence. That said, I am quite confident and self assured in what I do and think. I think that I know what I am worth without any airs and pretensions. I believe that I should be rewarded for my contributions and hard work and would be upset if these were overlooked. I think that this sums up my personality quite well 3. Look at the Rokeach instrumental and terminal values in Exhibit 5-3 on page 147 of the text. According to your own personal values, rank the list from 1-18 with #1 being the most important to you and # 18 being the least. List your responses in order and tell us what insights you gained from this exercise. TERMINAL VALUES 1. A Comfortable Life 2. A World at Peace 3. A World of Beauty 4. A Sense of Accomplishment 5. An

Robert Frost Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Robert Frost - Research Paper Example Significantly, Frost occupies the status of one of the most read and constantly anthologized poets in American literature. The most remarkable characteristics of Frost’s poetry include the clarity of his diction, his colloquial rhythms, the simplicity of his images, and the unsophisticated and direct method of writing. As Katrin Gischler (2007) maintains, â€Å"Although his career started only at the age of forty, he made his mark as a poet, becoming more and more widely known until at the end he was the United States’ de facto poet laureate. He was a four-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize and received an unprecedented number and range of literary, academic, and public honors.† (Gischler, 3) Therefore, it is fundamental to realize that Robert Frost had a highly successful poetic career, which hit its peak when he recited his poem â€Å"The Gift Outright† at the inauguration of John F Kennedy in 1961. This paper makes a reflective exploration of the most es sential thematic elements in the poetry by Robert Frost, focusing on some of his most celebrated poems. Robert Frost was born to journalist William Prescott Frost, Jr. and Isabelle Moodie, in San Francisco on March 26, 1874. At the age of eleven, Frost’s father died of tuberculosis and he moved to New England, along with his mother who now resumed the career of a teacher in order to support the family. From his early school years at Lawrence High School in Lawrence, Massachusetts, Robert Frost developed interest in reading and writing poetry. Following his studies at Lawrence High School, Frost was enrolled at Dartmouth College in 1892, although he did not earn a formal degree. It is evident, from a biographical study of the poet, that Robert Frost had a tumultuous and unstable early life, but a stable and happy adult life with his wife Elinor Miriam White and his children. â€Å"The first thirty-eight years of his life were determined by his own insecurity and vulnerability . Only the influences of his mother†¦ did much to shape Frost’s basic nature. Later on, Frost also felt the influence of his high school comrade, Carl Burrell†¦ The last and longest influential relationship was that with Elinor White, whom Frost married in 1895.† (Gischler, 3) Elinor White remained the chief source inspiration for many of the poems by Robert Frost. A close analysis of the biography of Robert Frost confirms that his personal life, especially the early stages of his life, was overwhelmed with sorrow and hammering, including the death of his father due to tuberculosis, of his mother due to cancer, and the experience of mental illness and depression by his younger sister Jeanie, his daughter Irma, and his wife Elinor. Therefore, it is fundamental to realize that Robert Frost withstood several misfortunes and miseries all through his life to produce some of the most fascinating lines of poetry ever written in literature. Thematic Elements in Frostà ¢â‚¬â„¢s Poetry In American literature, Robert Frost holds a unique and almost isolated position, thanks mainly to the rhetoric devices and thematic elements of his poetry. Significantly, the basic emotional or psychological experiences expressed by this great poet of nature make an impact on the readers even today. It is essential to realize that, even while following the essential principles of versification, Robert Frost’s poetry is rich with psychological meaning and humanist ideologies. The poetic intelligence of Frost can be very well understood in the way he used traditional poetic devices such as

Herbert Henry Asquith Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Herbert Henry Asquith - Essay Example As Prime Minister Asquith worked closely with his successor as Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George to push through the Liberal social reform policies. The People’s Budget of 1909 had shown the government’s reforming credentials yet forced two general elections during 1910 (James, 2003 p. 88). Asquith had not had an easy time as Prime Minister yet had previously maintained the loyalty of the Liberal Party through the various problems faced before his replacement by Lloyd George. The Liberal government had been through enough traumas before the First World War. Disruption was caused through the issues of reducing the power of the House of Lords, dealing with industrial unrest, and votes for women, although the war itself put those issues and the more controversial moves towards Irish home rule on hold for the duration (Schama, 2002 p. 433). Although David Lloyd George was known to be ambitious, he had not from the outset of the First World War planned to oust Asquith and become Prime Minister himself. At the start of the conflict, Asquith and Lloyd George had been united as to Britain’s war aims and that Asquith was the best available Prime Minister. Neither man, for instance, had thought about making peace with Germany, instead of waiting for the outcome of the Somme offensive in 1916 (Stevenson, 2004 p. 148). In the source Stevenson argues that Lloyd George wished to become Prime Minister to help the nation win the war, to add a sense of urgency in the solving of political, military, and economic obstacles that were preventing British victory. Lloyd George’s ambitions are played down whilst the stubbornness of Asquith in refusing to step down is stressed. Asquith was assumed to be selfishly holding on to power to the detriment of the Liberal party’s future and British national interests (Taylor, p . 128).

International Human Rights Treaties Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

International Human Rights Treaties - Essay Example Hathaway (588) states that there are two main UN-chartered based enforcements. The two are declarations and conventions. The extent to which declarations are effective enough to attract compliance is limited. This is because; declarations depend on the willingness of the host country to enforce certain laws. In addition, declarations are not legally binding. However, declarations have major political implications in terms of enforcement and the willingness to comply by the members bound by the said declarations. Under the international law on the other hand, conventions are legally binding. According to Neumayer (925), it is common knowledge that international human rights are generally under-enforced. The reason given for this under-enforcement is due to the nature of enforcement of such treaties, which is mainly done through transitional legal processes. The international legal processes in this context refer to the collaboration between various legal institutions across the world. Kinney (1457) also shows the distinct difference between obedience and enforcement. Obedience does not involve any consequences other than the fact that disobedience of the law may have indirect political, economic, and social implications. However, enforcement is subject to punitive measures in terms of violations. This implies that laws that are enforced attract legal measures and implications at the behest of the international community. The situation is often complicated when some nations are not part of any international community.

Debate and team paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Debate and team paper - Essay Example This grows the country’s economy significantly. This paper will review some of the advantages of tourism on both the political and economic front. The political situation in the Philippines is questionable at the moment. However, the government supports tourism since they benefit from all the foreign capital that flows into the country (Lumang, 2008). Some of the political class that supports tourism offer the tourists with accommodation during their stay. It is tantamount that the political class be involved. This is because they offer comfort to all those that wish to travel to the Philippines for holiday, and business. There are establishments run by politicians which offer tourists with the best services, hence providing them with a chance to host more tourists in a year. Another advantage that comes with tourism for the political front is the laws that are in place that promote tourism as an investment. There are laws still being passed in parliament for there to be tourist zones. This means that politicians will push for the building of restaurants, resorts, and hotels to benefit the tourists. The proposed laws also offer incentives to potential investors since they offer the exemption of duties placed on some goods and services (Lumang, 2008). Investors may want to bring their capital to the Philippines since it is profitable. Tourism is raking in billions of dollars into the country. In the near future, it is evident tourism will be responsible for the direct employment of more than four million Filipinos in the country (Lumang, 2008). The Philippines is marketing itself as the preferred destination for all foreign nationals. If people are willing to invest in the country, it is only a matter of time before the country realizes some of its most desired dreams. As many people are retiring to the Philippines, it is offering a new variety of amenities for them.

Company law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Company law - Essay Example It implies that if somebody starts a business as a limited liability company, the company is regarded as a legal entity with a separate legal personality, which signifies that a company is different from its owners, employees along with shareholders. This in turn assures the advantages of ‘corporate veil’ to the company, wherein the owners, employees and shareholders are directly charged with the damage claims or tort claims caused due to their misconduct or irresponsible conduct with the name of the company. The Salomon principle in this regard emphasises that a company only provides grounds for individuals to act in its behalf and thus, charges in lieu of the tort laws should be treated in a way that makes the decision makers directly, personally and professionally liable for the damages1. In this regard, it has often been argued and has subsequently been under stern arguments that the tort creditors of a subsidiary company holding limited liability shall be deemed as ineligible to obtain the benefits from Salomon principle. It is worth mentioning in this context that because tort creditors are also recognised as involuntary creditors and fall into the classification of unsecured stakeholders2. The case rule in Adams v Cape Industries plc plays an influential role in this context wherein it affirms that employees of subsidiary companies, as involuntary creditors and also as tort creditors should be considered as eligible to demand damage compensations from the parent company. In is in this context that the application of Salomon principle is regarded as unjust in respect to the tort creditors where the parent company bears a rational degree of ‘duty of care’ to protect the interests of its subsidiary tort creditors3. Emphasising this particular issue, the discussion henceforth intends to discuss about the applicability of Salomon principle in the company law. Moreover, the discussion will also emphasize on the various aspects on the basis of which Salomon principle is regarded to be unfair for tort creditors of a subsidiary company. Solomon Principle and Tort Creditors of a Subsidiary Company As mentioned above, the Salomon principle has been developed from the case ‘Salomon v Salomon & Co, Ltd’. The Salomon principle implies that corporate decision makers should be legally entitled to compensate the damages suffered by the stakeholders of the business due to their misconducts or ignorance to ‘duty of care’, as per the relevant tort law. These companies are regarded as private and should be registered under the Companies Act 1862. In this regard, a registered company is determined to possess a separate legal entity as per the Salomon principle, which differentiates the statue of such a company from its shareholders, employees and other individuals associated with it. In this context, a company incorporated under the Companies Act 1862 is treated as an independent individual possessing its own respective rights along with liabilities that are different from the rights and liabilities owned by its decision makers, which further justifies the application of corporate veil in segregating the liabilities of individuals from that of the company as separate entities. There are various instances where the principle of

Elliot Company Essay Example for Free

Elliot Company Essay The Elliot Company was established in the early 1950’s and has been a profitable greeting card company. It had always been a pioneer in developing creative means to attract its target group, in spite of which the group’s market share has been limited to merely 4% in the industry. Industry leader Hallmark has the lion’s share of about 41%, American Greetings about 30%, followed by over 300 companies, including   Elliot Company that account for the remaining share. Technological advancements in the telephone industry and the advent of the internet have pushed most greeting card companies against a wall, with flat sales, diminishing margins and a threat of decimation. The way forward is to identify means of generating sales by entering newer markets and the company has identified two markets that remain unexplored for Elliot Company American Hispanic market Overseas English speaking market Problem Statement Elliot Company had never ventured into unchartered territories, and finds both these markets intricate. The American Hispanic market is unique and has different sensitivities than the dominant white and black market that Elliot Company has been catering to. Meeting the needs of the overseas market is even more complicated as the company would need to study several cultures and meet their respective needs. Marketing the product to both these unique markets is the challenge that Elliot Company faces, for which a solution is required. The company cannot enter both the markets at once, and hence an ideal market should be identified that would suit the interests of the company. There are about 30 million Hispanics in America, who predominantly come from Mexico, Cuba and other Spanish dominated countries. The interesting facts about this population are: The Hispanic population has the highest growing population in the country with almost 40% of population growth between the years 1985 to 2010, coming from this community. The Hispanic population can be broadly divided into three groups, the native Spanish people who speak and follow Spanish culture alone; the assimilated Spanish, who cannot be distinguished from the Americans; and the Accultured Spanish, who are about 57% of the Hispanic population. (Arjona, Shah, Tinivelli Weiss, 1998) The Hispanic community prefer significant influence of their culture in the marketing process, even if the communication occurred in English. Price conscious audience that chooses price over value Just like the Hispanic community, the overseas market has different sensitivities that make it an equally tough opportunity to expand into. Also, there are certain problems the company faces when entering these markets, which are listed below. Existence of multiple cultures in each country Semantic barriers that can prevent communication as anticipated Cultural perceptions about greeting cards, as customers in some countries prefer customized and hand written communication to pre-printed cards. Huge costs of research development, product and distribution.   List of Critical factors The management if Elliot Company is apprehensive with both the solutions provided by the consultants, as each of them has their own concerns, which are listed above. A study shows that more than eighty percent of greeting cards customers, the world over are women. Hence, whichever strategy adopted by Elliot Company, would need to target the women predominantly. Which group of women, overseas women or Hispanic American women, can be targeted easily is one critical factor of success.   While venturing into foreign markets like UK, Australia, Canada and New Zealand would be good option for the penetration of the company into newer markets, it would expose the company to the competition of each market. While Canada is a market that Elliot Company should find easy to understand with its proximity to the American culture, each of the other markets is complex in their own ways. Hallmark has already made preparations to launch Spanish greeting cards by including several Spanglish messages (The Washington Times, 2002), and would aggressively market its brand when compared to Elliot Company. Hence, which market is less competitive and can easily be penetrated becomes the second critical factor. The third critical factor is the consumer’s buying behavior in both these markets. Hispanic customers have a buying behavior that is strongly influenced by culture and cultural cues, which include importance for family, formality and status. (Haegele, 2000 in Lynn Brandon, Judith C. Forney, 2002) The above three factors can contribute greatly to the success of Elliot greeting cards in this target group, the company can focus the marketing strategy on how to express emotions to its family, how to upkeep formalities and use greeting cards as a status symbol for greeting someone. On the contrary, some of the overseas markets are less liberal and more demanding. The culture of Australia and New Zealand is strongly influenced from the English, and the English culture finds it more appropriate to send a personalized letter than a pre-designed and pre-printed greeting card. The success of the company is dependent on how well it breaks this cultural barrier. Recommended Solution In spite of the advantages of a larger market that the company can cater to when it reaches out to the overseas market, it is recommended that Elliot Company focus on reaching out to the Hispanic American community, by offering customized greeting cards. Justification The biggest factor that justifies the above recommendation is the huge costs involved in establishing a brand and a business overseas, in multiple markets. To reach out to the overseas English market also would require significant investments in research about respective cultures, making the cost of research irrelevant for the decision making process for either decisions. A third of the Hispanic community would identify themselves with the rest of the Americans, and no special campaigns need to be done for them. However, the accultured Hispanics and the native Spanish speakers prefer a brand that they can identify with their ethnic group, to a business that seems very un-ethnic. (Dyer Ross, 2000) Elliot Company should reach to the Hispanic community with a brand that they can identify with, design greeting cards based on their preferences and deliver the same as per their needs. Mere translations from the exhaustive designs that Elliot owns might not be as helpful, as designing cards that meet the needs of the Hispanic customers. References Luis D. Arjona, Rajesh Shah, Alejandro Tinivelli Adam Weiss (1998) Marketing to the Hispanic Consumer,   Journal Title: The McKinsey Quarterly. Volume: 1. Issue: 3. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number: 106+ Lynn Brandon, Judith C. Forney (2002), Influences on Female Purchase Motivations and Product Satisfaction: a Comparison of Casual and Formal Lifestyles and Anglo and Hispanic Ethnicity, Journal Title: Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences. Volume: 94. Issue: 1. Publication Year: 2002. Page Number: 54+ Linda M. Dyer, Christopher A. Ross (2000), Ethnic Enterprises and Their Clientele, Journal Title: Journal of Small Business Management. Volume: 38. Issue: 2, Page Number: 48 Spanglish Speakers Mix Home Languages; Popular Trend Seen as Obstacle. Newspaper Title: The Washington Times. Publication Date: November 21, 2002. Page Number: A01

Contribution of Chicago School to Criminology

Contribution of Chicago School to Criminology Critically assess the contribution of  the Chicago School In this essay I will critically assess the contribution of the Chicago school. I will open this essay by briefly describing the Chicago school and the conditions in which it arose. I will then look at the context within criminology in witch the Chicago School emerged; I will do this by looking at the dominating criminological theories that existed before the Chicago school. Furthermore I will discuss the influence Emile Durkhiem and Ernest Simmel made to the Chicago school theories. I will follow by describeing and criticaly assesing the contributions made by some of the key Chicago School thinkers, Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, Edwin Sutherland and Robert Merton. This essay will be concluded by assessing the contributions of the Chicago School theories. The Chicago school is the name given to the work conducted at the University of Chicago since the 1890’s. The Chicago school emerged at a time when the city was experiencing rapid social changes owing to a rapid increase in population as a result of great migration. These massive social changes caused problems regarding; housing, poverty and strain on institutions. These rapid social changes interested sociologists; they were concerned as to how the city would stay stable in relation to these changes (Faris, 1967, p.5). The Chicago school primary work took a positive stance; however, sociologists were more focused on social povisitivism. This social positivism I will demonstrate in social structural theories by Robert Park, Ernest Burgress, Robert Merton, Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay. Following world war two some sociologists at the school employed a different form of enquiry to the previous positivist approach. These sociologists’s applied an interactionist form of enquiry to study the social world; this was called symbolic interactionism strongly influenced by the work of Ernest Simmel. This intractionist form of inquiry I will demonstrate in the work of Edwin Sutherland. In order to understand the contributions made by the Chicago school, we need to understand the context in which the Chicago school emerged. The dominant theories in Criminology preceding the Chicago school were classical criminological and positivist theories of crime. The classical school of criminology dates back to the enlightenment in the early 18th century. Philosopher’s Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria, focused their interest on the system of criminal justice and penology, they suggested that crime is a product of human nature and rational humans possess free will, therefore have the ability to control their actions. (Carrabine et al, 2004, chap. 3) This perspective emerged as an alternative to the old barbaric system of capital punishment and was concerned with generating a criminal justice system which was more reasonable. This theory was not concerned with the individual causes of crime but instead focused on the law enforcement and legal procedure. Classical criminologists believe that laws are constructed to demonstrate that non-criminal behaviour is in peoples self interests because, according to Jeremy Bentham, it corresponds to his hedonistic utilitarian principle, ‘the greatest good for the greatest number’ (Bentham,1789). Beccaria suggests that crime is a result of bad laws and had nothing to do with bad individuals. Beccaria’s famous book On Crime and Punishment, offered a new perspective based on justice, his notions became the foundations of the modern criminal justice system (Beccaria, 1764, p.8-19). Early positivist theories of crime are deterministic as they reject the naotin of free will. This deterministic approach uses emprical reasurch methods. This perspective proposes that crime is a consequence of biological, psychological and enviromental determents (Ceurabine et al, 2004, chap. 3). This is in contrast to the classical approach, which focuses on legal issues and prevention of crime. Positivist criminologists alleged that the causes and effects of criminal behaviour are directly observable; this view was shared by Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso did not believe in the notion of free will, he believed that criminal behaviour was inherited. Lombroso suggested that a ‘criminal type’ exists, criminals are physiologically different to non –criminals and these criminals display observable physical signs and deformities. Lombroso conducted research on criminals to gain observable evidence (Macionis and Plummer, 2005, p.442). Both of these theories offer interesting explanations of crime and have contributed to the development of criminology today. The criminal justice system might not exist without the work of Beccaria and perhaps capital punishment might still be in use presently. The work of early positivist criminologists have contributed to criminology by suggesting that crime is not necessarily a matter of free will but could in fact be a result of determining external factors. The positivist tradition was also employed by Emile Durkhiem. The Chicago school was highly influenced by Durkhiem’s work and his ideas contributed to the development of some of their theories. The Chicago School’s early work employed a social positivist tradition as they believed that crime was not a matter of free will but was determined by social factors. Emile Durkhiem was interested in social positivism; his theories focused macro sociological issues. Durkhiem looked at societies as a whole and believed that there were laws that govern and control our behaviour. Durkhiem suggested that a certain degree of crime and deviance was necessary for a healthy society. He suggested that individuals are influenced by different factors and may not share the same values; these conflicting values can cause deviant behaviour (Durkheim, 1895, p.65-73). Durkhiem suggested that too much crime and deviance threatens the stability of society but too little indicates apathy as well as limiting change and innovation. Durkhiem also suggested that deviance has a positive function because exposure to criminal behaviour reinforces society’s belief in shared norms and values, when a criminal trial transpires; it heightens awareness of society’s moral code. Durkhiem believed that society can be viewed similarly to an organic organism because both are made up from interdependent parts working together in order for the whole to function; he suggested that institutions such as the family, education and religion all contribute to the overall functioning of society. (Macionis and Plummer, 2005 p.444) After world war two, some Chicago school thinkers were influenced by the work of Ernest Simmel, his ideas are essential for understanding the original notions from where symbolic interactionism emerged. Simmel looked at micro sociological issues. Simmel suggested that individuals are not directly observable because of their subjective nature; he believed that individuals are self interested and try to gain their needs by using the means available to them. Simmel looked at individual’s actions as he believed that through these actions the social world was constructed he suggests †¦. society is made up of the interactions between and among individuals, and the sociologist should study the patterns and forms of these associations, rather than quest after social laws (Farganis, p. 133). This perspective is different from the deterministic postivist theorys as it belives that individuals have the free will to construt their own reality. Robert Park was an influential figure at the university during the 1920’s and 1930’s, he was interested in human Ecology. He was highly influenced by the work of Emile Durkhiem and his organic analogy of society. Park saw the city as a super organism and held that social changes were a natural process required by society in order to proceed and effectively evolve. (Park and Burgress, 1921) Robert Park was pioneer of a new research method called ethnography. This pioneering new method made huge contributions to the way sociologists/ criminologists studied the social world. Park encouraged his students to go into the city and collect primary data using observational methods. (Macionis and Plummer 2005 p.648-649) â€Å"Go and sit in the lounges of the luxury hotels and on the doorsteps of the flophouses; sit on the Gold Coast settees and on the slum shakedown; sit in the Orchestra Hall and the Star and Garter Burlesque. In short, gentlemen, go get the seat of your pants dirty in real research.† (Park, Cited in Prus 1996, pg 103-140) Using a mixture of ethnographic methods combined with ecology, Park and Ernest Burgress conducted an ecological study on the city of Chicago. Together they constructed a diagrammatical representation of the city called the concentric zone model. The concentric zone model was the first model to demonstrate how urban land was used. This model showed the location of certain social groups within the city of Chicago (Macionis and Plummer, 2005 p.650-651). This theory revealed that there was a correlation in distance from the central business zone depending on class, it showed that richer people lived further away from the central business district and poorer people lived near it in the zone of transition. Their theory suggests that areas nearest the core are impacted higher by social changes for example poverty, immagration (Macionis and Plummer, 2005 p.650-651). This theory has contributed to criminology as it shows the correlation between social ecology, class and crime; this model demonstrates the impact social changes have on crime. This was a change to previous explanations of crime as it suggestes that crime is a result of external social factors, and therefore challenges the earlier positivist’s biological causational theory supported by Lombroso. The centric zone model has been criticised because the theory is context and historically specific. This theory cannot be applied to explain city’s other than Chicago. This theory does not explain modern ecology, as high-class housing is near the centre of the city and not on the outskirts. Another criticism is that Park and Burgess used official data to produce their theory but they did not have knowledge of how this official data was configured, such as; if the data was affected by bias, if individuals were labelled. This theory also did not take into account white collar crime. Furthermore Park and Burgess’ theory did not offer explanations as to why crime in the zone of transition was higher in other areas. This theory also did not suggest who committed crime’s and why? (Short, 1976) Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay also made contributions to the development of the Chicago school. They were interested in how these social forces influence crime, an area overlooked by the earlier work of Park and Burgess. Shaw and McKay were interested in social disorganization; they suggest that crime is a social disorder resulting from social disorganization (Lotz, 2005 p. 122-127). Shaw and McKay used Park and Burgess’s concentric zone model to investigate the relationships in crime rates and delinquency in the different zones in the city. They also found that areas located near the city centre that were experiencing high disorganization were also experiencing high delinquency. They suggest that â€Å"Delinquency rates were for these groups highbecause of other aspects of the total situation in which they lived† (Shaw and McKay, 1942 pg56). There theory looked at the reasons behind the high levels of disorganization. They advocate that social disorganization in urban areas is linked to social changes for example, industrialization, urbanization and immigration. They propose that disorganized areas will develop deviant and criminal values that substitute conventional values. The diagram below demonstrates Shaw and McKay’s theory (Shaw and McKay, 1942). Shaw and McKay theory is unique as it looks at the social aspects causing crime; it explains why there are increased amounts of delinquency in certain areas and within certain groups (Shaw and McKay, 1942). There are however criticisms of Shaw and McKay’s social disorgniztional theory. Critics suggest that not everyone who lives in disorganized communities engage in criminal acts. It also does not explain why criminal acts are still present in areas that are seen to have low disorganization. This theory also overlooks middle class crime as it only focuses on disorganized areas. This theory does not explain how deviant norms and values are transmitted (Lotz, 2005, p. 122-127). Another theory associated with the University of Chicago was the theory of differential association developed by Edwin Sutherland 1939. It aim is to understand the process in which deviant behaviour is learnt. This theory explains areas that Shaw and McKay missed. This theory looks at the cultural transmission it proposes that criminal behaviour is learned through human interactions and suggests that criminal and deviant norms, attitudes and motives transpire from learned behaviour. He looked deeply at individuals’ values and cultural perspectives in order to recognize the reasons behind deviant and criminal behaviour. This perspective was influenced by the ideas of Simmel and the idea that researchers needed to look at the underlying causes of criminal behaviour (Cote, 2002, p.125-130). This perspective made contributions to criminology as it suggests that the causes of crime are related to learning deviant or criminal norms. This theory contrasts the positivist theories as it takes an interactionists stance. This theory suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through interaction and can be transmitted through groups of people through communication and a collection of shared attitudes. This theory also can be used to explain white collar crimes (Lotz, 2005 p.127-131). However this theory does not explain why not all individuals who are influenced by criminal or deviant norms don’t become deviant or criminals. This theory can be criticized for its lack of empirical evidence due to interpretive form of inquiry. This theory does take into account the pressure society puts on individuals to achieve their goals; this pressure is explained by Robert Merton’s strain theory (Cote, 2002, p.125-130). Robert Merton’s strain theory was derived form Emile Durkhiem’s theory of anomie. This theory looks at the impact society has on individuals. Merton suggests that there is an inequality in the ability for individuals to achieve their goals. This theory suggests that when individuals cannot acquire the means to achieve their goals this can lead to criminal and deviant behaviour. His theory is broken down into five elements as this diagram demonstrates (Lotz, 2005, p.127-131). Conformity is when individuals accept there are means and goals. Innovation is when there is a rejection of the means but the individual still desires the goal, this could result in criminal behaviour. Ritualism is not a rejection of the goals but the individual accepts that they can’t reach their goals. Retreatism, individuals want to withdraw from society and are not interested in inquiring the means or reaching their goals. Rebellion, these individuals reject the means and goals but do not withdraw from society but rather wants society to change and become active force of change. This theory has contributed to criminolgy as it focuses on how strain society puts on people, to obtain the means in order to achieve their goals, these pressures Merton calls anomie. This theory gives explanations to why poor people commit crime. It demonstrates that the poor don’t have the means they need to achieve their goals (Cote, 2002, p.125-130). There is however criticisms of this theory this theory does not explain why there is white collar crime. It overlooks the issue that rich people who have the means to achieve their goals still commit crime (Lotz, 2005, p.127-131). In conclusion the Chicago school theories made significant contributions to the study of criminology. The modern structural theories changed our thinking from the idea that crime was caused by individual biological/genetic factors, to the idea that crime was a result of social factors. The Chicago school’s social structural theories suggest that crime is a result of external social and cultural factors. Robert Park and Ernest Burgess ecological theory, made a contribution as it demostrated how exteral social factors can influence crime. Shaw and McKay made contributions to criminology by explaining how thease external social factors had an impact on criminal behaviour. Their social disorgniztional theory demonstrates the link between external factors (social disorganization) and crime. Their disorganizational theory demostrates what happens if there is a break down of social control in society. They suggest that this beack down leads to disorganization. However this theory doe s not explain the pressure social control has on individuals. This was the focus of Merton’s strain theory; Merton was interested in the pressure society put on individuals. Merton’s strain theory higlights effects the social forces have on determin crime. The Chicago School also contributed by adopting an interactionist’s form of inquiry as demostrated in Edwin Sutherland’s diffrential associaition theory. This form of inquiry was inspired by the work of simmel and is unique in comparission to the positivist tradittion. The interactionist approach made significant contributions to the way we understand the underlying reasons behind criminal behaviour. This perspective is not intrested in finding the cause of crime but is aim. The Chicago school contributed by using ethnography, this allowed researchers to get in-depth detailed accounts of the social phenomena they were observing. Ethnographic methods are still used today as they are considered a vital wa y to gain detailed primary information. Every Chicago school theory has contributed to the way we study criminology some theories may be more relevant than others but all the theories have raised important issues. Bibliography Beccaria, Cesare (1764) On Crimes and Punishments. Translated from the Italian by Richard Davies and Virginia Cox. In On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings, edited by Richard Bellamy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Bentham, Jeremy (1789) An introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. In A Bentham Reader, edited by Mary Peter Mack. New York: Pegasus Books, 1969 Bulmer, Martin. (1984). The Chicago School of Sociology: Institutionalization, Diversity and the Rise of Sociological Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Burgess, Ernest Bogue, Donald J. (eds.).(1964). Contributions to Urban Sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Bulmer, Martin. (1984). The Chicago School of Sociology: Institutionalization, Diversity, and the Rise of Sociological Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Carrabine et al 2004, Criminology a Sociology Introduction (chap. 3) Carey, James T. (1975) Sociology and Public Affairs: The Chicago School. [Volume 16 in Sage Library of Social Research], Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Cote, Suzette. (2002) Criminological Theories Bridging the Past to the Future, Sage: london. Durkheim, Emile (orig.1895; reprint 1994) selection from The Rules of the Sociological Method. Reprinted in Joseph E. Jacoby (ed.) Classics of Criminology. Prospect Hills, IL: Waveland Press Farganis, J., Readings in Social Theory: the Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism,McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993. Faris, Robert E. L. (1967). Chicago Sociology: 1920-1932. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company. Garland D, 2002, Of Crimes and Criminals: the development of criminology in Britan, in M Maguire et al 2nd ed., The oxford Handbook of Criminology Kurtz, Lester R. (1984). Evaluating Chicago Sociology: A Guide to the Literature, with an Annotated Bibliography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Lotz, R. (2005). Youth crime: A modern synthesis in America. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Macionis. J and Ken Plummer (2005), sociology a global introduction, third ed, Pearson Education ltd Edinburgh gate Harlow. Park, Robert and Ernest Burgess. Introduction to the Science of Sociology. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921). Sharpe J, 1984, Crime in early Modern England, 1550-1750 Shaw, C.R. H.D. McKay (1942). Juvenile delinquency in urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Short, James F. Delinquency, Crime, and Soceity. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1976 Sutherland, E.H. (1939). Principles of criminology. Third edition. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. Tierney J, 2006, Criminology: Theory Context (chap 3) http://faculty.ncwc.edu/TOCONNOR/images/criminology/concentric.gif http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg

Improvements In Life Expectancy India Health And Social Care Essay

Improvements In Life Expectancy India Health And Social Care Essay Life expectancy of Indians during the past fifty years has been steadily increasing exponentially matching the trend that took several hundred years shown in Developed countries. 23Some of the possible reasons for such exponential rises gained by Indians in years are controlling deaths caused by epidemics and pandemic infectious diseases, and absence of famines or wars since Indias independence. The high death rates due to infectious diseases were dramatically curtailed due to availability of antibiotics and further with introduction of Universal Immunization program. This was followed by improved living conditions, advances in public health, and availability of advanced medical interventions. Figure.1: Improvements in Life Expectancy-India (1960-2009) Source: The World Bank Group  [4]   Results from estimates of World Bank indicate that India has share of her good and bad news. The good news so far has been that Life expectancy is increasing until now and bad news is whether such rate of increase can be maintained over next few decades. Currently India has excellent health service delivery mechanisms, which are efficient in extending the lives of her people by treating chronic conditions and cancer. However, the question is whether such improvements in technology are addressed only to cure ailing population or can India address preventive programs aimed at decreasing the burden of obesity and chronic conditions. Hence, the next big threat to Life Expectancy improvements appears to be stemming from obesity and chronic diseases in middle and old age, which are directly linked to an increased risk for death and morbidity. Attempts to predict life expectancy of Indian population, in terms of whether it is improving or getting worse becomes even more intricate in the absence of scientific data available for such evaluations. Figure 2. Observed and Projected composition of age-groups for Indians (1960 to 2010). Evidence from studies indicates that obesity and overweight in adulthood are associated with large decreases in life expectancy and increases in early mortality.  [5]  678This paper aims at explaining the intricacies involved in the interplay of obesity and old age in their impact on Life expectancy. Challenges in measuring the effects of Obesity and Old Age on Life expectancy Ice-berg phenomenon The health risks of obesity in the elderly are mostly underestimated due to survivor bias seen in the elderly people (only those who have survived fatal effects of obesity and chronic diseases), inability to separate competing mortalities due to relatively shortened life expectancy in older persons and longitudinal effects of confounding conditions (eg., smoking) are difficult to measure.  [9]   Definition of Obesity in Elderly The appropriateness of definition of obesity in the elderly is a debatable issue. Obesity should be defined as the amount of excess fat storage associated with elevated health risk. For this practical definition, Body Mass Index (BMI) has been largely used in younger adults as well in older ages. BMI gets altered in old age due to age-dependent changes in numerator and denominator in calculation. Several studies have shown that there is age-related decline in height, probably because of spinal deformity with thinning of the inter-vertebral discs as well as loss of vertebral body height due to osteoporosis. Hence, age-dependent height decrease leads to incorrect overestimation of obesity. Body weight in old people reflects a higher amount of total fat because of age-dependent loss of lean body mass. This may lead to underestimation of obesity as a result of increase and redistribution of fat inside the body. Hence, aging influences both numerator and denominator of BMI, in opposite di rections. Further, larger waist and waist-to-hip ratio have found to be significantly associated with mortality in older subjects, whilst BMI was not. The higher the age, the shorter is the remaining lifespan for persons regardless of degree of obesity. Most obesity related consequences take years to develop even among susceptible population; hence, obesity related complications in old age are not seen if susceptible die of non-obesity-related conditions. It is observed that weight change, both weight loss and weight gain, is a strong predictor of mortality. Further, many studies showed lower mortality in subjects with lower BMI, or at least a U-shaped relation between BMI and mortality. The underlying diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer can result in spurious inverse relation between low body weight and increased mortality.  [10]   Interaction of Obesity, Old Age and their toll on Life Expectancy Weight gain or fat redistribution in older age confers adverse health risks in the form of early mortality and co-morbidities amounting to functional decline. Obesity has been recognized to be associated with several disorders that confer morbidity and may also be related to increased mortality. Obesity, and more importantly body fat distribution are associated with metabolic syndrome even in old ages.  [11]  There is higher prevalence of both systemic and pulmonary hypertension and a higher risk of cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality in old age, especially among those with pulmonary complications and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS).  [12]   Role of Smoking There is stronger evidence that smoking plays an important role in the interaction of obesity and old age. It is well known that smokers are thinner and have an elevated mortality compared with nonsmokers. However, when only people who never smoked were studied, there is an observed linear relation between BMI and mortality among older subjects, suggesting that increased mortality associated with the lowest weights were a function of cigarette smoking, and that, among never-smokers, very low weights were associated with the greatest longevity. Summary The steady rise in life expectancy observed in the modern era may soon come to an end and the youth of today may, on average, live less healthy and possibly even have shorter lives than their parents. There are many challenges to delineate the association between obesity and mortality in the elderly. Since confounding effects by different variables in this association accumulate over the lifetime, it is difficult to accurately measure and account for these factors. Mortality is not the only end point that should be considered in the evaluation of the impact of overweight and obesity on health status in older people. There is increasing evidence that obesity is reduces life expectancy due to direct and indirect causes. Obesity will not only increases the risk of death for most people at most ages, but also consistently leads to a much higher level of disability and disease at all ages. Voluntary weight loss may have beneficial health effects in elderly similar to the effects in young age. Studies on the effect of weight loss in the elderly are scarce, but they suggest that even small amounts of weight loss (between 5 to 10% of initial body weight) may be beneficial. It is well known that increased physical exercise is associated with decreased mortality risk in middle-aged as well as in older people.  [13]   India is surpassing through dual burden of diseases and consequences of obesity might take a greater toll. Hence policy makers should focus on promoting prevention and treatment of obesity related conditions, especially among old age. Based on priorities in public health expenditure, the country can effectively implement population-level interventions to reduce obesity. Health care providers should engage in complete evaluation of co morbidity and weight history, in the elderly obese persons to comprehensively address potential adverse health effects of o obesity.

Essay on the Power Hopkins Sonnet, Gods Grandeur -- Sonnet essays

Essay on the Power Hopkins' Sonnet, God's Grandeur As "the world is charged with the grandeur of God," so Gerard Manley Hopkins' sonnet, "God's Grandeur," is charged with language, imagery, sounds and metric patterns that express that grandeur. Through its powerful use of the elements of poetry, the poem explores the power of God and the wonder of nature. "God's Grandeur" is a lyric poem. The tone of the poem is one, naturally, of grandeur, as well as power and wonder. Hopkins' choices of words add to the feeling of grandeur that is the subject of the poem through their powerful imagery, and they express wonder at the power and grandeur of God and the continuity of nature. Words such as "grandeur" and "flame out" show the power with which God is revealed in His creation, while "seared," "bleared," "smeared," "smudge," and "smell" add to the sense of man's inability to recognize God's grandeur and our tendency to destroy it. In the last line of the poem, "warm breast" and "bright wings" give a sense of hope for the world, in the warmth and light of the Holy Ghost, daily renewing the world with the morning. Several key metaphors are used in the poem. The first is the me... ...em. The theme of the poems involves, according to title, God's grandeur, and his power as it is revealed in creation. It also involves the "searing" effect of generations of civilization that have trod the earth. Finally, it involves the "dearest freshness deep down things" of nature and the regenerative power of God to repair the damage of civilization. Through his use of the elements of poetry and powerful imagery, Hopkins expresses his theme in a remarkable way. "God's Grandeur" is a powerful, expressive poem, a wonderful example of the uses of metaphor, imagery, and alliteration.

Organ Transplants in the UK Essay -- Healthcare

The need for organs in the UK is increasing by an outstanding rate, leaving up to 5000 people to die, while waiting for an organ to be donated, each year. Hospitals and their resources are exhausted. The number of donated organs is simply not enough to keep up with the increasing demand for healthy, transplantable organs. Scientists have in recent years come up with numerous advances in this area of science; however various issues have become apparent on the road to successful transplantation. Transplantation is the process of replacing a damaged or failing organ with a compatible functioning one. For years the only foreseeable solution were voluntary donors who allowed the use of their organs after they passed away or live donors who were prepared to donate cells, blood or transplantable organs such as kidneys. The main issue with organ transplantation is the lack of donors. Governments in the past have put forward the idea of compulsory donation. However some people argue that this is unethical and a person has the right to refuse. In some major religions the idea of harming the body after death is just simply not an option. Counter arguments claim that these issues are irrelevant as the number of lives saved would outweigh any negatives; they would be ‘saving lives’. Transplants from human donors are relatively straightforward on the face of it however underneath the surface hides a tangle of ethical and moral concerns. What are the sources of organs used in transplantation? Should we pay for organs? Should someone who has already received one transplant, be allowed a second? Should alcoholics be given liver transplants? Yes, in the United Kingdom, organs are sourced from volunteers, however in recent years the issue of or... ...arch?’ http://www.sciencemag.org/content/318/5858/1917.abstract, ‘Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human Somatic Cells’, November 2007 http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/About-us/Policy/Spotlight-issues/Human-Fertilisation-and-Embryology-Act/Stem-cell-basics/WTD040077.htm, ‘The ethics of stem cells’ http://www.stemcellresources.org/pdf/uw_ethics.pdf, ‘The ethics of stem cells’ http://stemcells-research.net/2011/07/09/stem-cells-ethics/, ‘stem cell ethics’ http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/3/1246.full.pdf+html?sid=cc03e2a4-2c56-4dfa-9a45-2ac85b454869, ‘Comparison between bortezomib and rituximab in the treatment of antibody-mediated renal allograft rejection’ Journals/Books: Budiani-Saberi, Da; Delmonico, Fl, "Organ trafficking and transplant tourism: a commentary on the global realities.†, American journal of transplantation, May 2008

Profit and Loss Essay

A profit and loss account is something businesses use to show them their revenue, costs and profits for that certain year, therefore showing the total amount of profit that the business has made that year, it is extremely important for the business, in particular for the accounts department who will refer to the profit and loss account a lot. This is because it clearly lays out what the business has spent, and what the business has brought in, it is easy for the business to identify any problems involving finance, and these problems can be solved. Sales Revenue is all of the money which is coming into the business as a result of them selling their products and services, this figure is from purely sales, nothing is taken away from sales revenue. I am going to use Whitbread’s profit and loss account to show examples of sales revenue, their sales revenue for the year 2002/3 was  £1,794.1m and  £2,014.3m for the year 2001/2, this figure tells the business that their turnover has decreased in the past year, this could be for a variety of different reasons, of them is that the business had slightly more market share in 2001/2, however since than similar businesses have moved into the market and customers interests has been attracted towards those. Also, the business in itself may have decreased in quality, customers may not be as happy with the business as they were in the previous year and therefore have chose to visit other companies as a result of this. The cost of sales is how much it has cost the business to make a product/service, for example, a company selling jam, their cost of sales would be how much it has cost them to produce the jars of jam, this would be the ingredients and jars. For 2001/2, the cost of sales are at a loss of  £1.5480.0m, for 2002/3 they stand at a loss of  £1,353.1m, therefore the cost of sales were high for the year 2001/2. Reasons for which they cost of sales decreasing could be that the business is now not wasting as many raw materials and only using what they need. Whitbread’s cost of sales could be paying suppliers of places such as Beefeater’s for the products which they produce. Raw materials are materials which the business uses in order to produce a product, for example, a Pizza shop will need to import raw materials such as flour, cheese, tomatoes and pepperoni, these raw materials are they created into a finished product, in this case, the pizza. Opening and closing stock is to do with stock and the financial year, how much stock the company has at the start of their financial year, and how much they have at the end, this way the business can look at how successful a product has been throughout the year. Expenditure in a business is what it is costing them to keep the business running, without these things the business would not be able to keep running, these are known as ongoing costs. There are a large variety of expenditure costs, for example: -employee costs -repairs -interest -administration -distribution costs -etc Looking at Whitbread’s accounts, in 2001/2, their expenditure was  £389.9m and for 2002/3 was  £203.9m. In 2001, Whitbread’s spent  £25m on ‘restructuring costs’, meaning this money was spent on ways ti improve the business, new technology may have been purchased so the business does not need to spend money on other expenses. Depreciation is when an asset, for example a car, loses value over time, a car bought in 2001, will be worth less in 2002, this is because new models will have been launched and therefore customers will prefer these. On the profit and loss account, depreciation is put under expenses. In 2001/2 deprecation for Whitbreads was 3.9m, and for 2002/3 was  £7.8m. Therefore depreciation was much high during 2002/3, the reason for this is probably the fact that during the ‘restriction’ stages, the company has purchased new technology which has now decreased in value Taxation is known as the corporation tax which has to be paid by all limited companies, it is taken from their profits, and is usually a cut of them, this goes is paid to the government, obviously every company’s taxation is different. Whitbread’s taxation in 2001/2 was  £59.4m, for the year 2002/3 it stands at  £50.0m., therefore taxsation was around  £5.9.4m higher in 2001/2, this is because this year the business had a slightly higher sales turnover, meaning the taxation is higher. Gross profit is all profit made from the business, including what it has cost the business to keep running i.e. expenses.. This means that gorss profit is sales revenue, minus cost of sales, this figure creates gross profit. Sales Revenue – Cost of sales = Gross Profit Gross profit during 2001/2 stands at  £466.3m, and for the year 2002/3 are  £441.0m. This tells us that gross profit was slightly higher in 2001/2, this is because there was a different number of sales in this year that the other. However, the gross profit figure may also be different because the company is not bringing in as many sales as in other years. The business must be aware that the gross profit is not a true indication of their current performance because it does not take into account Net profit is the businesses total profit for that financial year, in order to figure out the net profit, the business must first work out the gross profit, then take away business expenses, giving the final profit figure. For the year 2001/2, the net profit was a loss of  £52.4m, however in 2002/3 the businesses net profit was  £152.8m, meaning the business made a higher net profit in 2002/3. The reason for this is probably the fact that the business under went a lot of reconstruction. The net profit gives Whitbread’s a clear indication on how they are performing as a company. Looking at Whitbread’s accounts, I would say that as a business, they have clearly made excellent improvements since their reconstruction, they have gone from making a large loss, to making a large profit in just a year. Therefore I would defiantly invest in Whitbread’s, however I would prefer to see the accounts of Whitbread over the next few years to make sure customers haven’t lost interest, in a few years time, Whitbread’s may need to make more improvements to its business to make sure they are keeping up to date.

BP Crisis Communication

A crisis was exactly what British Petroleum (referred to as ‘BP throughout the paper) went through in 2010. It was particularly important to communicate the right way taking all considerations into account. We were wondering how the specific crisis went so wrong and if the use of specific communication strategy was beneficial or not. Hence, the communication strategies used to overcome the crisis can be used by many other companies in the future as guidelines of how to do and, maybe more important, how not to.Also, the intervention from the American government, the pressure from the local community and how the media was used, is extremely important in the BP case. This paper intends to show how BP communicated and reacted throughout the crisis. It will discuss the challenges BP had and it will especially focus on how BP actually reacted to the crisis and how they perhaps should have reacted differently, including the use of communication theories. Finally, the paper will outlin e the consequences of the crisis on both organization and communication strategy.On April 20, 2010, the Departed Horizon oil-drilling rig explosion in the Gulf of Mexico resulted in the deaths of 11 rig workers, but public attention quickly shifted from their deaths to the following environmental and economic damages – the incident was described as the worst maritime oil spill accident in history, as the accident released over 18 million gallons of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Three months passed before BP substantially stopped the leak, all the while the crisis was evilly covered by all news media in the United States as well as internationally.As a result of this, the BP oil spill case serves an excellent example of analysis of BSP crisis communication. L The total cost of BP to indemnify the clean up of the environment and funds to affected workers has reached almost two billion dollars. 2 2 www. Guardian. Co. UK/business/2012/July/31 /BP-departed-horizon-costs Page 4 of 28 Incorporated in 1909 in England , BP has become one of the world's largest multinational companies operating in more than 80 countries 4, leading in oil and as industry, including exploration and production, refining, distribution, extracting and producing renewable energy.The company provides their customers with energy for heating and lighting, fuel for transportation and energy for retail services and petrochemical products. BP employs approximately 80,000 employees, and sales and other operating revenues add up to $375,517 million in 20116 . Finally BP is also a conglomerate owning several brands such as: ORAL, ARC, Castro, amp and The Wild Bean Cafe ©. Having settled â€Å"BP and the Departed Horizon Crisis† as the case, which this paper ill centre around, the problem statement is as follows: To which extent has BP successfully communicated during the Departed Horizon Crisis?In order to examine the problem statement the paper will attempt to address the followi ng issues: I) Characterize how BP communicated during the crisis. It) Analyses the effects of BSP communicative strategies. Iii) Discuss and evaluate whether or not BP has been successful in dealing with the crisis seen from a communicative perspective. In this paper a broad spectrum of empirical data has been used. However, most of the empirical data has been found through articles in different newspapers – the use f different newspapers and their viewpoints has given us very diversified inputs throughout the paper.But this does not exclude a use of quantitative data which, amongst other things, have been used to illuminate the several attempts of BP to use CARS-strategies, and underline the immense loss of fiscal funds the crisis has caused. The rather specific choices of qualitative data have been used to shed light on the different views of the crisis – and the several statements pointing toward similar conclusions have helped to support the points made and clarify a rather eventful crisis.In addition, the conclusions deducted throughout the paper have been supported by theories worked with in classes and the additional http://www. BP. Com/liveliness/BP_internet/global/Stating/global_assets/ downloads/F/ OFF_2007_2011 _full_book. PDF 4 http://www. BP. Com/liveliness/BP_internet/global/Stating/global_assets/ downloads/l/BP_20-F_2009. PDF 5 http://www. BP. Com/Congregationalists. Do? Category=3&contentld=2006926 6 http://www. BP. Com/Congregationalists. Do? Category=3&contentld=2006926 page 5 of 28 theories which proved to be necessary or helpful.In the beginning of the work with he case study of BSP crisis response, a pretty sufficient understanding of the crisis as a whole was in place, we assumed, but as the paper progressed and different theories were applied our understanding of BP and the relationship to their stakeholders grew. The quantitative data used also comes from BSP own publications as well as articles from different internationa l online newspapers. Of course, the reader must have in mind that BSP own figures, occasionally, might have been used to strengthen their image and not only inform the reader.When examining and analyzing the Deep Water Horizon oil spill crisis, this paper is et out to delimit the case by answering our initial problem statement. To narrow our focus down to the relevant aspects in the case we have decided to delimit our analysis to the main stakeholders, including: (I) the American government; (it) the local society; and (iii) the media. This has been done not only due to the formal constraints of the paper, but also in order to go into depth with these stakeholders, who we reckon to be, of major importance to this crisis within the given delimitation's of this paper.In order to answer this paper we find it necessary to make a common definition of a crisis. Extensive studies have been carried out on crisis communications over the past two decades. A brief review of literature on this subject reveals that there are several definitions of organizational crisis, depending on theorists' different viewpoints on what constitutes a crisis. Herman claimed that to reach the level of a crisis, the event must contain three negative attributes: surprise, threat, and short response time.Surprise means that the organization did not prepare for the magnitude of the crisis. Threat means that the event poses a threat to the organization's financial security, customers, surrounding environment etc. Short response time refers to the urgent need of preventive action in order to stop an intensification of the crisis. 7 For the purpose of this paper the following deduction of a definition off crisis is found useful: Hermann, C. F. , 1963. Some consequences of crisis which limit the viability of organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 8, p. 61-82. Page 6 of 28 W.Timothy Combs utilizes the interconnectivity of these three attributes to make his definition of a crisis: â€Å"A crisis can be defined as an event that is an unpredictable, major threat that can have a negative effect on the organization, industry, or takeovers if handled improperly. â€Å"8 Furthermore, according to the very same book, organizations frequently find themselves in situations that can be identified as crisis. There are no exceptions; â€Å"We must accept that no organization is immune from a crisis anywhere in the world even if that organization is vigilant and actively seeks to prevent crises. † (Combs & Holiday, 2010: p. 7). This reality urges the need for preparation and readiness to respond – what is called crisis management. The major difference between handling an issue and an actual crisis is that an issue turns into crisis when it goes from the company domain into the public domain; a situation, which sometimes is inevitable no matter how competent the management is. 9 10 The term ‘a crisis within a crisis', or a so-called ‘double-crisis', as coined by Danish professors Finn Freedmen and Winning Johannes, refers to a situation where a company experiences a communication crisis that overshadows the initial crisis. 1 A crisis within a crisis naturally has negative implications for a company since it emphasizes weaknesses in the company's internal structure and/or interactions with stakeholders. The term is relevant to apply to this particular case because its give an accurate description of the consequences of BSP communicative strategy. The agenda setting theory distinguishes between two levels of agenda setting in the media. The first level deals with the significance of an organization where an organization receives more media attention then other related organizations.The second level relates to associations or topics that the public associates with a particular organization. 12 One of the important aspects when dealing with the media is the agenda, which stakeholders often associate to organizations. The agenda settin g theory is related to this assumption and therefore is significant to apply when analyzing BSP media relations. Combs, T. W. & Holiday, S. J. 2010. The Handbook of Crisis Communications. Wiley- Blackwell, p. 18. Benches, Claus. Guest Lecturer, Global Media Relations Manager at Damon.Gave a lecture on crisis communication on Tuesday the 20th of November. 10 Benches, Claus. Guest Lecturer, Global Media Relations Manager at Damon. Gave a lecture on crisis communication on Tuesday the 20th of November. From his PDF on Crisis Communication. 11 http://pure. AU. Dc/portal-cab-student/files/10106/ Crisis_communication_-_Not_Just_peanuts. PDF 12 Cornelius, Jeep. 2011. Corporate Communication – A Guide to Theory and Practice. Page 146. 9 page 7 of 28 An important element for an organization, according to protect its own reputation, is the communication with stakeholders.As a company might have many different stakeholders it is important to have a tool to categories them. Once the stak eholders are categorized the organization will be able to decide, how and how much it should communicate with this stakeholder. In general when describing stakeholders this paper is using Edward Freeman's definition of a stakeholder: A stakeholder is any group or individual who can affect or is affected but the achievement of the organization's purpose and objectives†. 3 In order to categories stakeholders this assignment will use the ‘Stakeholder salience model'. The superiority of this model is that while being extremely simple to use it is also extremely precise when in its finding of how much effort the organization should use when communicating with each category of stakeholder, and even more important; how the company should communicate with its various stakeholders.The model is based on â€Å"salience†, defined as the visibility of the stakeholder to the organization using three parameters; (a) the power of the stakeholder group, (b) the legitimacy of the c laim laid upon the organization, and (c) the urgency of how important the claim is according to the need of an immediate action. The purpose of the model is to define how salient a stakeholder group is. The model is based on seven different types of stakeholder groups; (1) Dormant stakeholders are the ones with dominant power and the ability to affect other groups of stakeholders.They are not able to legitimate their claims, and power will only be dormant but have an influence anyway. Mostly, this would be wealthy stakeholders. (2) Discretionary stakeholders are stakeholders with a high degree of legitimacy but without the necessary power to influence the organization. (3) Demand stakeholders are the ones with urgent claims but without power and the necessary legitimacy to enforce them. (4) Dominant stakeholders are the group of stakeholders representing both legitimacy and power.These are stakeholders having great influence on the organization, e. G. Owners and big investors. (5) D angerous stakeholders are people with both urgent and claims on power. In addition, these will often attempt to use unfair† means. (6) Dependent stakeholders are those who rely on others to get their claims carried out – mostly because of the lack of power. Finally, (7) Definitive stakeholders can be identified as the ones having both legitimacy and urgency as well as power. These are the most powerful stakeholders and it is strictly Cornelius, Jeep. 011. Corporate Communication – A Guide to Theory and Practice. Page 42. Page 8 of 28 necessary for the organization to keep close communication with these. Normally, it would be definitive stakeholders who can also be classified as the shareholders. Once the stakeholders are categorized, the firm can now decide on strategy of communication. When researching strategies of communication, this paper has used the basic framework of communicative strategy given to us in â€Å"Corporate Communication – A Guide to T heory and Practice†14 .The framework generally provides three different strategies. This framework is chosen because of its simplicity when it comes to numbers of strategies and complexity when it comes to ways of communicating within each strategy, hence the framework provide an extremely useful tool when analyzing and discussing what mind of communication BP has conducted, how it worked, why the strategy did not work and why it might have worked better: Informal strategy is a strategy of simple informing about something through; newsletters, press releases etc.This strategy is hence based on the idea that objective information about the organization should be passed on to the relevant stakeholders. Persuasive strategy uses tools such as advertising and meetings/discussions with stakeholders. The general aim of this strategy is to change the stakeholders' image into a more favorable one or to create particular understanding with the organization's decisions. The strategy will not create change in the organization, but rather aims to create change in the stakeholders' perception of the organization and its decisions.Dialogue strategy aims to create a mutual understanding and/or mutual decisions between stakeholders and the organization. Timothy Combs divides a crisis into four different types with two different aspects. The four types are; faux pas, terrorism, accidents and transgressions. In addition, a crisis in this matrix can be of either internal or external, and intentional or unintentional characteristics. 1 5