Marijuana as a Gateway Drug the Causal Fallacy Essay Example

Marijuana as a Gateway Drug: the Causal Fallacy Paper Marijuana as a Gateway Drug: The Causal Fallacy The marijuana plant, perhaps the most widely-used illicit drug in the world, was once demonized by authorities and the media. In the 1936 film Marijuana: Weed with Roots in Hell, director Dwain Esper portrayed teens smoking marijuana and then engaging in perceived evils such as nude bathing and unchaperoned partying, with one girl becoming pregnant. The film went on to further depict the characters becoming addicted to marijuana and committing serious crimes including a police shootout and kidnapping for ransom. These claims are based on the type of faulty casual analysis that has given rise to anti-marijuana myths that have endured over the years, but they are fortunately starting to abate. While the Western world has lightened up, some misconceptions persist, particularly those based on casual fallacy. An example of such a fallacy can be found in the argument that marijuana is a â€Å"gateway drug† which causes users to eventually progress to hard drugs, when that’s not actually the case. The correlation between marijuana and other illegal substances is not in dispute, nor is the chronology in that marijuana use typically precedes other drug use. We will write a custom essay sample on Marijuana as a Gateway Drug: the Causal Fallacy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Marijuana as a Gateway Drug: the Causal Fallacy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Marijuana as a Gateway Drug: the Causal Fallacy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Studies show that a hard drug users’ first experience with an illicit drug is likely to be marijuana, and that nearly every hard drug user has tried marijuana at least once. Furthermore, studies also show that marijuana users are more likely to try hard drugs than non-users. But correlation and chronology doesn’t imply causation, and it’s causation that is at the crux of the â€Å"gateway drug† argument. The reason marijuana use typically occurs before other illicit drug is because it’s readily available and accessible, especially for youth. Instead of having to venture to a store and provide photo ID as a young teens would with liquor and tobacco, they might be able to buy marijuana without having to leave school property or even their own home. Acquiring it may involve only placing a quick phone call to a drug dealer and having it delivered like a pizza. The primary reason for this is marijuana’s illegality. By outlawing marijuana it’s driven to the black market where there is no age restriction or code of ethics. Furthermore, a marijuana dealer may also introduce customers to their harder product lines, or at least connect them with someone who can. Dealers tend to be more cautious of selling harder drugs since the penalties, if caught, are much stiffer. Once trust is gained through the sale of marijuana, they might be more comfortable progressing to more serious transactions. Because of this, the first experience people may have to illicit drugs is likely to be marijuana, putting it in the position where it appears to cause other drug use simply because of chronological order. The lack of objective evidence showing a casual link between marijuana and hard drugs was discussed in the scientific literature as early as 1999. In the book Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base, published by the US Institute of Medicine, researchers wrote that â€Å"because it is the most widely used illicit drug, marijuana is predictably the first illicit drug most people encounter† and that â€Å"not surprisingly, most users of other illicit drugs have used marijuana first† (Joy et al. 6). However, â€Å"there is no conclusive evidence that the drug effects of marijuana are causally linked to the subsequent abuse of other illicit drugs† (Joy et al. 6). Subsequent research has similarly been unable to establish casual links. While most hard drug users started with marijuana, and most hard drug users have used marijuana, it’s important to note that most marijuana users don’t actually use hard drugs. If marijuana caused hard drug use we would expect the rates of marijuana use to be consistent with the rates of hard drug use. The rate of marijuana use is nearly six-times higher than the five major types of hard drugs combined, according to Canadian government statistics. Health Canada’s 2010 â€Å"Canadian Alcohol and Drug Use Monitoring Surveyâ€Å" reported that 10. 7% of respondents 15 years of age or older admitted to using marijuana in the past year, while only 0. % used crack, 0. 5% used speed, 0. 7% used ecstasy, and 0. 7% used some type of illicit hallucinogen (excluding salvia). The total reported usage for these other drugs is 1. 8%, nearly one-sixth that of marijuana. Another factor is that marijuana users tend to be more prone to using hard drugs simply because they have t he personality traits conducive to substance abuse. These traits include the attitudes, feelings, responses, and behaviours that contribute to a person’s psychological makeup. In the 2002 article â€Å"Are Personality Traits Familial Risk Factors for Substance Use Disorders? researchers explain that â€Å"longitudinal studies have implicated personality characteristics as predisposing vulnerabilities for the subsequent development of substance-related disorders† (Swendsen et al. ). In this sense, marijuana and crack users have something in common; they are all willing to alter one’s mind to the chagrin of the law. Casual fallacies abound when we humans attempt to understand the world around us. It’s tempting to conclude that causation is established because there is a correlation or chronological order of events, but that’s not a logical approach. There are a multitude of factors to consider when establishing a causal link, and this is no exception. While marijuana is correlated with hard drugs, and marijuana use typically precedes hard drug use, it does not actually cause hard drug use. Like the other fallacies before it, the â€Å"gateway drug† fallacy is yet another marijuana myth that can hopefully be put to rest. Works Cited Canada. Health Canada. â€Å"Canadian Alcohol and Drug Use Monitoring Survey: 2010. † Ottawa: Health Canada, n. d. Web. 16 Nov. 2011. http://www. hc-sc. gc. a/hc-ps/drugs-drogues/stat/_2010/summary-sommaire-eng. php. Joy, Janet E. , et al. Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base. Washington, DC: The National Academic Press. 1999. Print. Marihuana: Weed with Roots in Hell! Dir. Dwain Esper. Perf. Harley Wood, Hugh McArthur, Pat Carlyle, and Paul Ellis. Roadshow Attractions Inc. , 1936. Film. Swendsen, Joel D. , et al. â€Å"Are Personality Traits Familial Risk Factors for Subs tance Use Disorders? Results of a Controlled Family Study† The American Journal of Psychiatry 159. 10 (2002): 1760-1766. Web. 18 Nov. 2011.

Definition and Examples of Expletives in English

Definition and Examples of Expletives in English In English grammar, expletive (pronounced EX-pli-tiv, from Latin, to fill) is a traditional term for a word- such as there  or  it- that serves to shift the emphasis in a sentence or embed one sentence in another.  Sometimes called a syntactic expletive or  (because the expletive has no  apparent  lexical meaning) an  empty word. There is also a second definition. In general usage, an expletive is an exclamatory word or expression, often one thats profane or obscene. In the book Expletive Deleted: A Good Look at Bad Language (2005), Ruth Wajnryb points out that expletives are frequently uttered without addressing anyone specifically. In this sense, they are reflexive- that is, turned in on the user. Examples and Observations of the First Definition Rather than providing a grammatical or structural meaning as the other structure-word classes do, the expletives- sometimes defined as empty words- generally act simply as operators that allow us to manipulate sentences in a variety of ways. (Martha Kolln, Understanding English Grammar, 1998) Full (Content) Words and  Empty (Form) Words It is now generally accepted that the absolute terms (full words and empty  words) and the rigid division of the dichotomy are misleading: on the one hand, there is no agreed way of quantifying the degrees of fullness which exist; on the other hand, the only words which seem to qualify as empty are the forms of be, to, there, and it- but only in certain of their uses, of course, viz. be as copula, infinitival to, there and it as unstressed subject props. . . . Most of the words commonly adduced as empty (e.g., of, the) can be shown to contain meaning, definable in terms other than stating grammatical contexts . . .. (David Crystal, English Word Classes. Fuzzy Grammar: A Reader,  ed by Bas Aarts et al. Oxford University Press, 2004)I dont believe them, Buttercup thought. There are no sharks in the water and there is  no blood in his cup. (William Goldman,  The Princess Bride, 1973)When youre not here to look at me I have to laugh at  your absurd powers. (Rosellen Brown, How to Win. The Massachusetts Review, 1975) Its  a pity that Kattie couldnt be here tonight. (Penelope Fitzgerald,  The Bookshop. Gerald Duckworth, 1978)There are only two ways to live your life. One is as though nothing is a miracle. The other is as though everything is a miracle. (attributed to Albert Einstein) Expletive Constructions: Stylistic Advice [A] device for emphasizing a particular word (whether the normal complement or the normal subject) is the so-called expletive construction, in which we begin the sentence with It is or There is. Thus, we can write: It was a book that John gave (or simply It was a book). But we can also write, throwing stress on the normal subject: It was John who gave the book. . . .Be on your guard against drifting into expletive or passive constructions. Obviously we achieve no emphasis if . . . we begin a good half of our sentences with It is or There is . . .. All emphasis or haphazard emphasis is no emphasis. (Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren, Modern Rhetoric, 3rd ed. Harcourt, 1972) Examples and Observations of Definition #2 Oh, my goodness! Oh,  my gracious! Oh, my  golly! What a narrow escape! What a near miss! What good fortune for our friends! (Roald Dahl,  Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, 1972)Holy mackerel.  Youre Aaron Maguires son? Good grief.  Good heavens. Your familys practically a dynasty in South Bend. Everybody knows theyre wallowing in money. (Jennifer Greene, Blame It on Paris. HQN, 2012)His arms give way and he crumples onto the grass, shrieking and laughing and rolling down the hill. But he lands on a stiff little thorn branch.  Shit bugger  bloody,  shit bugger  bloody. (Mark Haddon, The Red House. Vintage, 2012) Expletive Deleted (1) Originally, an expression used to fill out a line of verse or a sentence, without adding anything to the sense. (2) An interjected word, especially an oath or a swearword. At the time of the Watergate hearings in the U.S. in the 1970s, during the presidency of Richard Nixon, the phrase expletive deleted occurred frequently in the transcript of the White House tapes. The connection between original and derived meaning is caught in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1987), explaining the expletive use of f-ing as an adjective in I got my f-ing foot caught in the f-ing door: it is used as an almost meaningless addition to speech. Here, it is meaningless at the level of ideas but hardly at the level of emotion. (R. F. Ilson, Expletive. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford University Press, 1992) Infixes The places where expletives may be inserted, as a matter of emphasis, are closely related to (but not necessarily identical to) the places where a speaker may pause.  Expletives are  normally positioned at word boundaries (at positions which are the boundary for  grammatical  word and also for phonological word). But there are exceptions- for instance the sergeant-majors protest that I wont have no more insu blood ordination from you lot or such things as Cindy bloody rella . . .. McCarthy (1982) shows that expletives may only be positioned immediately before a stressed  syllable. What was one unit now becomes two phonological words (and the expletive is a further word).(R.M.W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, Words: A Typological Framework. Word: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, ed. by  Dixon and Aikhenvald. Cambridge University Press, 2003)

The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Investing In Real Estate Essay

The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Investing In Real Estate - Essay Example Is there such a thing like that? I believe there is. However, tantamount to the success of an individual in the field of investment are his or her invested efforts and generated knowledge. Today, there are many investments to choose from. The choice of one good investment is subjective or in a way, selective based on someone’s evaluative criteria. It is promising to invest in real estate, but it is still cannot be realized until someone learns to exert his or her efforts and critical analysis on related things, which are needed in order to successfully perpetuate in this kind of business. It takes extra effort to finally achieve the fruit of all endeavors. However, all exerted efforts are still subject to someone’s core skills. Just like any other investments, skills are needed to be successful in real estate investment. It can be actually viewed this way. The value of land does not depreciate. The law of supply and demand can actually be applied into this. Considering that the world population is increasing year by year, people are looking for resources to survive. The demand for land will increase. Land on the other hand will become a scarce resource. The higher the demands for land resource while its quantity decreases, the higher the price will become. This is one of the reasons why investing in real estate seems a good idea that somebody can carry on. In addition, as population increases, many people will be looking for homes. For those who cannot afford to buy a piece of land, the most convenient way is to look for housing for rent or affordable apartments for lease. This definitely makes investment in real estate an area of choice since a strong demand for shelter is integral to the existence of humanity. Many people are trying to invest in real estate for as mentioned, it promises good opportunity. Like any other investment, real estate is

Relate the quotation selected to the theories of tourism and impacts Research Paper

Relate the quotation selected to the theories of tourism and impacts and sustainability - Research Paper Example While this along with other such regions around the world are quickly becoming the must-watch hot spots of wetland destinations, it is essential to see how far the tourism industry is thriving on both improving the economy and protecting the marshes by sustainable maintenance. Since wetlands provide essential services such as water, food and energy, the indigenous people will have an urge to protect the swamp, mostly as part of their own tradition and culture (Chang 2010, p. 190). At the same time, tourism industry is interconnected with social, economical and environmental factors of the community. On the whole, tourism has the capacity to generate jobs and related businesses. Thus development in tourism needs to be sustainable, so that a) the viability of enterprises and activities can be maintained for a long term on the economic front, b) a greater respect for human rights, that is recognised with an impartial allotment of benefits to eradicate poverty, could be gained on the soc ial front and c) conserving and managing of resources, biological diversity and natural heritage become priority on the environmental front. As a matter of fact, sustainable tourism would promote a desire in the masses to enjoy green tourism, for example, conducting a series of elite interviews on why tourism is booming in Cuba, Jayawardene (2002. p 57) found that â€Å"the government’s focus on and attention to sustainable tourism development† was the main reason for the tourism flourishing in Cuba. It shows that tourist preferences are increasingly influenced by sustainability concerns; that is why, according to Taleb Rifai (Secretary General World Tourism Organisation), â€Å"today, ecotourism, nature, cultural adventure, rural and community tourism are taking the lead in the tourism markets and are predicted to continue growing more rapidly than traditional tourism products. Wetlands tourism is therefore uniquely placed in the evolving scenario of green tourismâ⠂¬  (2012). Considering the growing popularity of greener destinations, there is an urgent need of sustainability in wetland tourism management. The planning of policies and awareness rising on this issue needs to be focused on the potential value of the wetland tourism with regards to the economic benefit it can bring into the indigenous society. The study of the Fatt’an wetlands in Taiwan concludes by stating that awareness of the local people is the key to the success of any sustainable management program (Chang 2010 pp 198). However, many wetland examples around the world would reveal the risks and consequences of having unsustainable management in wetland tourism. Many countries have introduced wetland tourism policies, but they have not set sustainable strategies adequately recognising the role of wetlands. Hence, some of the African countries including Kenya, Namibia and so on were not able to yield the fruit of wetland tourism (Earth Watch). Similarly, the negative e ventualities resulting from unsustainable management of wetland might include the deterioration of the ecosystem due to various activities, which may also negatively affect the tranquillity of the wetland species

A letter To My Distant Friend Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A letter To My Distant Friend - Essay Example Though my mates were ready for the performance, I was still not comfortable. My instructor gave me no option and so I had to face the lion in front of me. The performance made me gain courage and also strengthened the bond that attracted me to dancing. First, dancing helps people to express their feelings about something and this is seen under the types of dances they do and the moves they make while dancing. An example I the expressionist dance that the Germans did to express their bitter feelings about the growth of Nazism that was being pioneered by Hitler. So from that example, dancing helps a society to confront the wrongs people always do. It has also enabled me to understand that people do not always dance for leisure but also to achieve their targets. This happened and I witnessed it during an international festival hosted in Kenya when one dancer made some moves that directly touched a woman he had fallen in love with and know what? The moves helped him to win the heart of the lady, a thing that left almost everybody amazed. As per the common understanding of the people, discipline is a crucial aspect of the virtues of the community and must be maintained in order to allow people to stay in harmony. I know you must be wondering how dancing which is just an art is related to discipline which is a virtue. Dancing especially the cultural dances equips dancers with good moral values since they convey some messages of warnings and consequences of some behaviors.

Sex Trafficking And Prostitution Criminology Essay

Sex Trafficking And Prostitution Criminology Essay Trafficking n its dictionary meaning, the concept of trafficking denotes a trade in something that should not be traded in. The concept of trafficking in people refers to the criminal practice of exploitation of human beings whereby humans are treated as commodities for profit, subjected to various forms of exploitation. Sex trafficking is a type of human trafficking The definition contains three main elements that constitute trafficking:  [1]   1.Acts- recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a person. 2.Means Threat/use of force ,other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception or abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability. 3. Purpose- Prostitution, forced labour or services, slavery , slavery like practices: servitude, organ trade. Trafficking involves the following: Movement of a person, with deception or coercion and into a situation of forced labour, prostitution slavery like practices: servitude. Trafficking can occur with or without crossing any international border. Prostitution is the sale of sexual services for money. prostitution the word itself speaks about the plight of the women. it is not a problem which exists in India but exists throughout the world. The Prostitution continued from ancient and medieval India and has taken a more gigantic outlook in modern India. India is one of the biggest market for prostitution in Asia with Mumbai alone Accommodating 200,000 prostitutes. The 1990s also witnessed a significant shift in the perception of flesh trade, by differentiating prostitution from trafficking, seeing it not merely as a moral or law enforcement problem, but as a human rights(including legal and democratic rights).violation linked to gender discriminate and disparity in development. Difference between trafficking and prostitution- often, trafficking is confused with prostitution. These are not synonymous. Trafficking is the process/ means while prostitution can be the result/end (of being trafficked). Trafficking is therefore the overall process while prostitution is the result. Human trafficking is the acquisition of people by improper means such as force, fraud or deception, with the aim of exploiting them.  [2]  Human trafficking has a history coterminous with that of society and has existed in various forms in almost all civilisations and cultures. It is a trade that exploits the vulnerability of human beings, especially women and children, in complete violation of their human rights, and makes them objects of financial transactions through the use of force and duress, whether for the purpose of sex, labour, slavery, or servitude. The concept of trafficking denotes a trade in something that should not be traded in. Human trafficking as defined by the UN is, the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or service, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.  [3]   Human trafficking includes sexual exploitation, labour trafficking, etc. Nowadays even cross-border human trafficking is prevalent. India has a huge population and because of that and our dwindling economy many people live below the poverty line. The smugglers and traffickers promise them a better life- a ray of hope, jobs as domestic servants, in the film world or in factories. They can offer them money, pleasure trip invitations or false promises of marriage. The main targets are the poor, helpless people are the ones who are exploited the most. Social and religious practices too have been a big cause. The recruiters are the first in the chain -procurer- they may be parents, neighbours, relatives or lovers or people who have been trafficked before. The procurers move to the potential sites for victims which mostly are the poverty-stricken areas where there has been no proper rehabilitation and then they haunt the bus stops, railway stations, streets, etc. The period they choose for trafficking depends on if that place has suffered a drought or social or political disasters recently, so that it would be easier to lure in the already suffering victims. The procurers use drugs, abduction, kidnapping, persuasion or deception to bag the targets. They hand the victims to the brothel owners, escort services, or managers of a sex establishment. Sex Trafficking: The Concept Women and children from developing countries, and from vulnerable parts of society in developed countries, are lured by promises of decent employment into leaving their homes and travelling to what they consider will be a better life. Victims are often provided with false travel documents and an organized network is used to transport them to the destination country, where they find themselves forced into sexual slavery and held in inhumane conditions and constant fear. In India, public debate on the issue of trafficking of women and children for commercial sexual exploitation emerged in the 1990s.  [4]  Trafficking of Human being is one of the gravest and worst forms of violation of the basic human rights. Besides the physical trauma mental injuries that the victim suffers in the process are often unbearable. Victims lead a life of complete despair with no hope to emerge out of their pathetic conditions and in this state of neglect lead their lives in completely inhumane conditions. The traffickers deprive the victims of their most basic human rights. Victims of sexual abuse are subjected to physical violence and sexual abuse, and are held under duress against their will. They receive low or no wages. Hence, they have little or no savings. This combined with indebtedness to the trafficker keeps them in a situation of debt bondage and slavery. What gives impetus and fuels this business of flesh trade is a situation where a victim of sex traffick ing is sold against her wishes to a brothel by her procurer and the money that the procurer gets in return for her is a debt which the victim is compelled to pay in order to earn her freedom. What adds on to this problem is that a victim is often uneducated and unaware of the debt on her and continues to work for years to come in the flesh market under the belief that one day she would earn her freedom by repaying this entire amount. The victims are forced to work in extremely harsh and inhumane conditions, in extremely long working hours with little or no time for rest and also in a state of total physical confinement and bondage similar to imprisonment and have little or no control over their own movement. They are subjected to poor living conditions with abysmal hygiene and sanitation facilities.  [5]  Their extremely pitiable state is intensified when a victim contracts various diseases, unwanted pregnancies, physical injuries etc. They are on a high risk of STD, AIDS, HIV, hepatitis, tuberculosis etc. Victims have no recourse to even the basic medical needs and facilities. Social stigma and ostracism is the other problem the victims of sex trafficking made to undergo. There is no acceptance for a victim in the society during her stay and even after it if someone tries and emerges out of the clutches of a trafficker. Victims of trafficking are not accepted even by their family members thereby leaving them with no hope to even to them emerge out of it as the prospects of social rehabilitation and acceptance into the society seem not quiet alluring to a victim. They are exposed to drugs and other addictions, and sometimes forcibly made addicts in order to ensure their continued dependence on the trafficker. Once the victim falls into a traffickers clutches, she will be exploited without any hope of redresal as long as she is capable of earning. After she becomes old or ill, or is infected with HIV/AIDS, the trafficker abandons her. He no longer arranges for her bail or pays the fine for her pleading guilty, and she is left alone to face trial and the due process of Law. Trafficking is an offence and the trafficker is liable to punishment, irrespective of the consent of the trafficked person. Other than the fact of being trafficked, the traffickers deprive the victims of their most basic human rights in the following manner  [6]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are subjected to physical violence and sexual abuse, and are held under duress against their will. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They receive low or no wages. Hence, they have little or no savings. This combined with indebtedness to the trafficker keeps them in a situation of debt bondage and slavery.  [7]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are forced to work extremely long hours in inhuman working conditions leaving little time for rest. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They live in conditions of physical confinement similar to imprisonment and have little or no control over their own movement. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are subjected to poor living conditions with abysmal hygiene and sanitation facilities. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The trafficker restricts their access to health or medical facilities. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face social stigma and social ostracism in their daily lives and as a result undergo constant humiliation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are exposed to drugs and other addictions, and sometimes forcibly made addicts in order to ensure their continued dependence on the trafficker. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face a continuous assault on their physical, psychological, and emotional health. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face health risks such as physical injury, STD, HIV/AIDS, unwanted pregnancies, repeated abortions, gynaecological diseases, tuberculosis, and other disease. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They also face harassment from the police and prosecution, and convicted by the judicial system under the ITPA. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ When they are no longer in a position to earn, they are abandoned and even the families who lived off their earnings do not support them à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Children of women in prostitution, especially daughters, are prone to being trafficked themselves. They have no access to education and basic needs of life 1.1 Reasons for Trafficking Trafficking occurs not only for prostitution/commercial sexual exploitation. Women and children are trafficked for several other purposes, some of include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced labour, including bonded child labour, in the carpet, garment, and other industries/factories/worksites.  [8]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced or bonded domestic work may be bought and sold or forced to work in inhuman and violent conditions that include sexual abuse.  [9]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced labour in construction sites with little or no wages.  [10]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced employment in the entertainment industry, including bars, massage parlours, and similar establishments. In addition to poor or no pay and bad living conditions, sexual harassment is common. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Children are sometimes trafficked for begging. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Organ trade such as sale of kidneys.  [11]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fraudulent or forced marriage: this includes sham, fraudulent, and illegal marriages, entered into by the man, residing in India or abroad, with the criminal intention of sexually exploiting the woman. Mail order brides where women are purchased or lured with false promises of a marriage abroad and subsequently recruited into prostitution is also a form of trafficking. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Camel jockeying often involves the sale of young children who are tied on a camels back for racing. Children are often badly hurt or killed in such races. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Purchase and sale of babies for adoption, both within the country and abroad, against established laws and procedures for adoption. 1.2 Causes There are several factors that lead to trafficking of women and children or cause them to become victims of trafficking. These factors can be broadly classified into two categories: supply factors and demand factors Supply Factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Abject poverty sometimes forces parents to sell their children to traffickers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Harmful cultural practices often make women and children extremely vulnerable. Child marriage is sometimes the route for a child to be trafficked for sexual purposes. The stigma attached to single, widowed, and abandoned women, or second wives through bigamous marriages, causes such women to be abandoned by society. They become easy targets for traffickers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Female illiteracy and lack of access to education by girls. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Male unemployment and loss of family income puts pressure on women to earn and support the family. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Natural calamities and poor rehabilitation of disaster victims puts pressure on women to earn and support the family. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Dysfunctional families or families that have difficulty functioning and communicating in emotionally healthy ways; a family that has a negative environment, which contributes little to the personal development and growth of family members.  [12]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Desertion by one or the other parent, uncared for or abandoned children. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Traditional practices give social legitimacy to trafficking. These include the Devadasi and Jogin traditions where Devadasis are often trafficked and sexually exploited. This is equally applicable to other communities such as the Nats, Kanjars, and Bedias where traditionally girls are made to earn through prostitution. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Porous borders. Weak law enforcement and inefficient and corrupt policing of the borders ensure that women from neighbouring countries are brought into India and forced into prostitution in different towns. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Clandestine nature of the crime and weak law enforcement. The crime does not come to light very often because of its clandestine nature. Victims are unable to access justice and even when they attempt to do so, weak law enforcement enables the traffickers to escape. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Urban opportunities. Many women are either lured by false promises of jobs in urban areas or they voluntarily migrate to urban areas on hearing about the opportunities in cities from their neighbours and friends. When a woman is pushed into prostitution due to these causes, the issue of consent of the trafficked person is not relevant. Even if a woman knows that she is being trafficked and gives her full consent, it does not absolve the trafficker of guilt. Trafficking is an offence irrespective of the womans consent (Sections 5 and 6 of the Immoral Traffic(Prevention) Act, 1956). Demand Factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rising male migration to urban areas and demand for commercial sex. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Growth of tourism, which sometimes indirectly encourages sex tourism. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Scare of HIV/AIDS and prevalent myths on sexuality and STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) leads to greater demand for newer and younger girls. The number of trafficked girls thus increases and their age decreases. 1.3 Concerns on Trafficking in India In the constitution of India Trafficking is prohibited.  [13]  Yet India is the Destination, source and transit for human trafficking primarily for commercial sexual exploitation, forced labour and with the falling sex ratio trafficking for marriages has become another factor for trafficking women and young girls. Trafficking of persons across the borders of Punjab and Bangladesh is not a cumbersome process, also Indias Policy of an open border with Nepal has made it difficult to identify trafficking.  [14]   There are a number of factors which are responsible for influencing trafficking of women and young girls in India. Women and young girls may be trafficked in India due to cultural practices and also because of poverty. Cultural Practices include the Devdasi System which is still prevalent in some parts of India as shown in a 2004 report by the National Human Rights Commission of the Government of India.  [15]  There are again many women who willingly migrate to the middle East, Europe and the United States to work as domestic labor who are defrauded by the placement agencies and sometimes trafficked. Women and Children trafficked within India are kept in conditions of involuntary servitude with characteristics such as withholding payment of wages, confiscation of travel documents non- adherence to conditions of work, inordinate profits to middle man. India is also a destination country for persons from Bangladesh and Nepal, and a bulk of those trafficked from these countries are women and children. In both cases the initial migration legal, illegal may be voluntary and subsequently migrants may be trafficked for sexual exploitation or any other factor. The numbers are very large, though precise figures are lacking and need to be tackled urgently. The 2010 Trafficking in persons Report  [16]  also points out that ninety percent of the trafficked persons belong to the most disadvantaged groups. It also carried evidence of NGO reports on duping of girls from north east India with Promises of jobs and then forcing them into prostitution as well as forced marriages. This heinous crime needs to be addressed urgently. There are legislations which deal with criminalizing a number of offences which are not specifically dealt with in the ITPA. These include penalizing acts such as procuring, buying and selling of human beings importing or exporting human beings, buying and selling minors, coercing or forcing marriage of minors, kidnapping and abducting and using force for the purpose of trafficking, slavery and slavery like conditions and unacceptable form of labor. A chart detailing miscellaneous legislations relevant to trafficking is given below.  [17]   LEGISLATIONS SECTION DETAILS OF THE PROVISION Indian Penal Code,1860 366 Kidnapping ,abducting or inducing a women to compel marriage. 366A Procuring a minor girl 366B Importation of a girl below 21 for sexual exploitation. 367 Kidnapping/abducting to subject person to grievous hurt, slavery. 370 Buying or disposing of a person as slave. 371 Habitual dealing in slaves. 372 Selling minor for prostitution 373 Buying minor for prostitution 374 Compelling a person to labour. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act,2006 12 Child marriage void if after that the minor is sold or trafficked or used for immoral purposes. Children (Pledging of Labour) Act,1933 4-6 Penalties for pledging labour of children(under 15 years) Bonded Labour System(Abolition )Act,1976 16 Compelling a person to render bonded labour or forced labour. Juvenile Justice Act,2000 2(vii) A child in need of care and protection includes one who is vulnerable and likely to be trafficked. 26 Procuring juveniles for hazardous employment. Trafficking and organised crime as defined by the law in India.- for the purpose of understanding cross border trafficking, especially in the context of organised crime, there are two definitions that need to be analysed, wiz, trafficking and organised crimes. How India defines and engages with these two terms is an indicator of the legal protection given to combat trafficking as an organised crime. Domestic Law of India There is no current central legislation in India with regard to organized crime. Some States however have legislated on the same. Maharashtra, which was the first State to have an Act,  [18]  defines organized crime as any continuing unlawful activity by an individual, singly or jointly, either as a member of an organized crime syndicate or on behalf of such syndicate, by use of violence or threat of violence or intimidation or coercion or other unlawful means, with the objective of gaining pecuniary benefits, or gaining undue economic or other advantage for himself or any other person, or promoting insurgency.  [19]   In the absence of a specific law on organized crime, reliance is placed on general provisions in criminal law dealing with common intention to commit an offence  [20]  , criminal conspiracy  [21]  and abetment. Anti-corruption laws may also be used. India has addressed trafficking both directly and indirectly in its Constitution. There are three Articles spread over Fundamental Rights in Part III and Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV which address trafficking related issues. The chart below summarizes the provisions. Provisions on Trafficking in the Constitution of India  [22]   Article 23 Fundamental Right prohibiting trafficking in human beings and forms of forced labor. Article 39(e) Directive Principle of State Policy directed at ensuring that health and strength of individuals are not abused and that no one is forced by economic necessity to do work unsuited to their age or strength.. Article 39(f) Directive Principle of State Policy stating that childhood and youth should be protected against exploitation. India has a written Constitution, and though the above provisions make Indias mandate on trafficking clear, penalizing and tackling trafficking is dealt with by legislation. The Constitution specifically mentions trafficking in human beings as well as forced labor and also indicates the special protection to be provided to vulnerable groups in society. The Constitution of India discusses provisions on trafficking at two levels one, at the level of Fundamental Rights which are basic rights available to all, irrespective of caste, creed, sex, place of birth, etc., and two, at the level of Directive Principles of State Policy. Fundamental Rights are justiciable and can be directly enforced in a court of law, whereas Directive Principles of State Policy are non-justiciable and cannot be directly enforced in a Court of Law. However, Directive Principles play a major role in shaping the policy of the State and may sometimes be the basis that legislation is built on. As a Fundamental Right in Article 23, trafficking in human beings is prohibited as are all forms of forced labor. According to Directive Principles of State Policy in Articles 39(e) and (f), the health and strength of workers should not be abused. It prohibits exploitation of persons to perform work which is unsuitable for them. It also specifically protects children and you th against exploitation of any kind. While the provisions in the Directive Principles of State Policy do not mention trafficking, it mentions exploitation which is a key element in trafficking. 1.4 International legislation History of international legislation International pressure to address trafficking in women and children became a growing part of the social Reform movement in the United States and Europe during the late 19th century. International legislation against the trafficking of women and children began with the ratification of an international convention in 1901, followed by ratification of a second convention in 1904. These conventions were ratified by 34 countries. The first formal international research into the scope of the problem was funded by American philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, through the American Bureau of Social Hygiene  [23]  . In 1923, a committee from the bureau was tasked with investigating trafficking in 28 countries, interviewing approximately 5,000 informants and analyzing information over two years before issuing its final report. This was the first formal report on trafficking in women and children to be issued by an official body. The League of Nations, formed in 1919, took over as the international coordinator of legislation intended to end the trafficking of women and children. An international Conference on White Slave Traffic was held in 1921, attended by the 34 countries that ratified the 1901 and 1904 conventions. Another convention against trafficking was ratified by League members in 1922, and like the 1904 international convention, this one required ratifying countries to submit annual reports on their progress in tackling the problem. Compliance with this requirement was not complete, although it gradually improved: in 1924, approximately 34% of the member countries submitted reports as required, which rose to 46% in 1929, 52% in 1933, and 61% in 1934. 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children (sponsored by the League of Nations) Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (United Nations General Assembly resolution, came into force in 1951) Current international laws Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage, and Registration of Marriages, entered into force in 1964 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children; and Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air. ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) ILO Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) ILO Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) CHAPTER-II :: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND POLICIES 2.1 Definition of Trafficking Article 3 of the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, 2000, states: Trafficking in Persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer,harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery,servitude or the removal of organs.  [24]   Article 1 (3), SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, signed by India on January 5, 2002, states: Trafficking means the moving, selling or buying of women and children for prostitution within and outside a country for monetary or other considerations with or without the consent of the of the person subjected to trafficking  [25]  . Article 1 (4) of the SAARC Convention defines Traffickers as: Traffickers means persons, agencies or institutions engaged in any form of trafficking. Article 34 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) states: States Parties undertake to protect the Child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. For these purposes, States Parties shall in particular take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent: (a) The inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any lawful sexual activity; (b) The exploitative use of children in prostitution or other unlawful sexual practices; (c) The exploitative use of children in pornographic performances and materials. Further, Article 35 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states: States Parties shall take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent the abduction of, the sale of or traffic in children for any purpose or in any form. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (ITPA) does not specifically define trafficking. However, the ingredients of trafficking, such as sexual exploitation and abuse of persons; running of a brothel; living on the earnings of a prostitute; procuring, inducing or taking a person for the sake of prostitution; detaining a person for prostitution, etc., are contained in Sections 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 of the Act. In the ITPA, (amended in 1978 and 1986), even though trafficking is not yet defined in accordance with the UN Protocol, To Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime or as per the SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, the essential ingr

Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making

Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of world around us. It involves deciding which information notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge. Another definition of perception is â€Å"A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment†.We can summarize the perception with this sentence â€Å"We don’t see the things as they are, we see things as we are†. Why is perception important in the study of Organizational Behaviour? Simply because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Virtually all management activities rely on perception.In appraising performance, managers use their perceptions of an employee’s behaviour as a basis for evaluation. Factors that influen ce perception are categorized to three groups; 1)Factors in the perceiver: Attitudes, Motives, Interests, Experience, Expectations 2)Factors in the situation: Time, Work Setting, Social Setting 3)Factors in the target: Novelty, Motion, Sounds, Size, Background, Proximity, Similarity Shortcuts used in judging others; )Selective Perception: a characteristic that make someone stand out in our mind will increase the probability that it will be perceived 2)Halo Effect: drawing a general impression based on a single characteristic 3)Contrast Effects: our reaction is influenced by others we have recently encountered 4)Projection: the tendency to attribute our own characteristics to other people 5)Stereotyping: judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which they belong Attribution in OrganizationsAttribution simply refers to how a person explains the cause of another’s or his or her own behaviour. Attribution thus is the most relevant application of perception c oncepts of organizational behaviour-the issue of person perception. The attributions or inferred causes we provide for behaviour have important implications in organizations. In explaining the causes of employee performance, good or bad, we are asked to explain the behaviour that was the basis for the performance.Attribution Theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused: Internally; believed to be under the personal control of the individual Externally; resulting from outside causes. Determinants of Attribution Distinctiveness; whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. Consensus; if everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way. Consistency; does the person respond the same way over time.Individual Decision Making Individuals in organizations make decisions. That is, they make choices from among two or more alternatives. Decision-making is almost universally defined as choosing between alternatives. Decision-making is a critical activity in the lives of managers. The decisions a manager faces can range from very simple, routine matters for which the manager has an established decision rule(programmed decisions) to new and complex decisions that require creative solutions(non-programmed decisions). Decision-Making ProcessManagers have to make decisions whether they are simple or extremely complex. Making a good decision is a difficult exercise. It is the product of deliberation, evaluation and thought. To make good decisions, managers should invariably follow a sequential set of steps. 1)recognize the problem and need for a decision 2)identify the objective of the decision 3)gather and evaluate data and diagnose the situation 4)list and evaluate alternatives 5)select the best course of action 6)implement the decision 7)gather feedback 8)follow up